Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Listing the Lesser Prairie-Chicken as a Threatened Species
Federal Register, Volume 77 Issue 238 (Tuesday, December 11, 2012)
Federal Register Volume 77, Number 238 (Tuesday, December 11, 2012)
Proposed Rules
Pages 73827-73888
From the Federal Register Online via the Government Printing Office www.gpo.gov
FR Doc No: 2012-29331
Page 73827
Vol. 77
Tuesday,
No. 238
December 11, 2012
Part IV
Department of the Interior
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Fish and Wildlife Service
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50 CFR Part 17
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Listing the Lesser Prairie-Chicken as a Threatened Species; Proposed Rule
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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
Fish and Wildlife Service
50 CFR Part 17
Docket No. FWS-R2-ES-2012-0071: 4500030113
RIN 1018-AV21
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Listing the Lesser Prairie-Chicken as a Threatened Species
AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, Interior.
ACTION: Proposed rule.
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SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, propose to list the lesser prairie-chicken (Tympanuchus pallidicinctus), a grassland bird known from southeastern Colorado, western Kansas, eastern New Mexico, western Oklahoma, and the Texas Panhandle, as a threatened species under the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended (Act). If we finalize the rule as proposed, it would extend the Act's protection to this species. We have determined that designation of critical habitat for the lesser prairie-chicken under the Act is prudent but not determinable at this time. We are seeking information and comments from the public regarding the lesser prairie-chicken and this proposed rule.
DATES: We will accept comments received or postmarked on or before March 11, 2013. Comments submitted electronically using the Federal eRulemaking Portal (see ADDRESSES section, below) must be received by 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on the closing date.
Public Hearings: We will hold four public hearings on this proposed rule. The public hearings will be held in Woodward, Oklahoma, on Tuesday, February 5; Garden City, Kansas, on Thursday, February 7; Lubbock, Texas, on Monday, February 11; and Roswell, New Mexico, on Tuesday, February 12. The public hearings will be held from 6:30 p.m. to 8:30 p.m.
ADDRESSES: Document availability: You may obtain copies of the proposed rule on the Internet at http://www.regulations.gov at Docket No. FWS-
R2-ES-2012-0071 or by mail from the Oklahoma Ecological Services Field Office (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).
Written Comments: You may submit written comments by one of the following methods:
(1) Electronically: Go to the Federal eRulemaking Portal: http://www.regulations.gov. Search for Docket No. FWS-R2-ES-2012-0071. You may submit a comment by clicking on ``Comment Now!''
(2) By hard copy: Submit by U.S. mail or hand-delivery to: Public Comments Processing, Attn: FWS-R2-ES-2012-0071; Division of Policy and Directives Management; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, MS 2042-PDM; Arlington, VA 22203.
We request that you send comments only by the methods described above. We will post all comments on http://www.regulations.gov. This generally means that we will post any personal information you provide us (see the Information Requested section below for more information).
Public hearings: The public hearings will be held at the following locations:
(1) Woodward, Oklahoma: High Plains Technology Center Seminar Center, 3921 34th Street, Woodward, OK 73801.
(2) Garden City, Kansas: Garden City Community College, 801 N. Campus Drive, Garden City, KS 67846.
(3) Lubbock, Texas: Lubbock Civic Center, 1501 Mac Davis Lane, Lubbock, TX 79401.
(4) Roswell, New Mexico: Eastern New Mexico University Fine Arts Auditorium, 64 University Boulevard, Roswell, NM 88203.
People needing reasonable accommodations in order to attend and participate in the public hearing should contact Dixie Porter, Field Supervisor, Oklahoma Ecological Services Field Office, as soon as possible (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT below).
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Dixie Porter, Field Supervisor, Oklahoma Ecological Services Field Office, 9014 East 21st Street, Tulsa, OK 74129; by telephone 918-581-7458 or by facsimile 918-581-
7467. Persons who use a telecommunications device for the deaf (TDD) may call the Federal Information Relay Service (FIRS) at 800-877-8339.
SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:
Executive Summary
This document consists of: (1) A proposed rule to list the lesser prairie-chicken as a threatened species; and (2) a finding that critical habitat is prudent but not determinable at this time.
Why we need to publish a rule. Under the Endangered Species Act, a species may warrant protection through listing if it is an endangered or threatened species throughout all or a significant portion of its range. In this proposal, we are explaining why the lesser prairie-
chicken warrants protection under the Endangered Species Act. This rule proposes to list the lesser prairie-chicken as a threatened species throughout its range.
The Endangered Species Act provides the basis for our action. Under the Endangered Species Act, we can determine that a species is an endangered or threatened species based on any of five factors: (A) The present or threatened destruction, modification, or curtailment of its habitat or range; (B) overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes; (C) disease or predation; (D) the inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms; or (E) other natural or manmade factors affecting its continued existence. The primary factors supporting the proposed threatened status for lesser prairie-chicken are the historical, ongoing, and probable future impacts of cumulative habitat loss and fragmentation. These impacts are the result of: conversion of grasslands to agricultural uses; encroachment by invasive woody plants; wind energy development; petroleum production; and presence of roads and manmade vertical structures including towers, utility lines, fences, turbines, wells, and buildings.
We will request peer review of the methods used in our proposal. We will specifically request that several knowledgeable individuals with scientific expertise in this species or related fields review the scientific information and methods that we used in developing this proposal.
We are seeking public comment on this proposed rule. Anyone is welcome to comment on our proposal or provide additional information on the proposal that we can use in making a final determination on the status of this species. Please submit your comments and materials concerning this proposed rule by one of the methods listed in the ADDRESSES section. Within 1 year following the publication of this proposal, we will publish in the Federal Register a final determination concerning the listing of the species or withdraw the proposal if new information is provided that supports that decision.
Public Comments
We intend that any final action resulting from this proposed rule will be based on the best scientific and commercial data available and be as accurate and as effective as possible. Therefore, we request comments or information from other concerned governmental agencies, Native American tribes, the scientific community, industry, general public, or any other interested parties concerning
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this proposed rule. We particularly seek comments regarding:
(1) The historical and current status and distribution of the lesser prairie-chicken, its biology and ecology, specific threats (or lack thereof) and regulations that may be addressing those threats and ongoing conservation measures for the species and its habitat.
(2) Information relevant to the factors that are the basis for making a listing determination for a species under section 4(a) of the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended (Act) (16 U.S.C. 1531 et seq.), which are:
(a) The present or threatened destruction, modification, or curtailment of the species' habitat or range;
(b) Overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes;
(c) Disease or predation;
(d) The inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms; or
(e) Other natural or manmade factors affecting its continued existence and threats to the species or its habitat.
(3) Which areas would be appropriate as critical habitat for the species and why areas should or should not be proposed for designation as critical habitat, including whether there are threats to the species from human activity that would be expected to increase due to the designation and whether that increase in threat would outweigh the benefit of designation such that the designation of critical habitat may not be prudent.
(4) Specific information on:
The amount and distribution of habitat for the lesser prairie-chicken,
What may constitute ``physical or biological features essential to the conservation of the species,'' within the geographical range currently occupied by the species,
Where these features are currently found,
Whether any of these features may require special management considerations or protection,
What areas, that were occupied at the time of listing (or are currently occupied) and that contain features essential to the conservation of the species, should be included in the designation and why,
What areas not occupied at the time of listing are essential for the conservation of the species and why.
(5) Information on the projected and reasonably likely impacts of climate change on the lesser prairie-chicken and its habitat.
(6) Information as to which prohibitions, and exceptions to those prohibitions, are necessary and advisable to provide for the conservation of the lesser prairie-chicken pursuant to section 4(d) of the Act.
Please note that submissions merely stating support for, or opposition to, the action under consideration without providing supporting information, although noted, will not be considered in making a determination, as section 4(b)(1)(A) of the Act directs that determinations as to whether any species is an endangered or threatened species must be made ``solely on the basis of the best scientific and commercial data available.''
You may submit your comments and materials concerning this proposed rule by one of the methods listed in the ADDRESSES section.
If you submit a comment via http://www.regulations.gov, your entire submission--including any personal identifying information--will be posted on the Web site. If your submission is made via a hardcopy that includes personal identifying information, you may request at the top of your document that we withhold this information from public review. However, we cannot guarantee that we will be able to do so. We will post all hardcopy comments on http://www.regulations.gov. Please include sufficient information with your comments to allow us to verify any scientific or commercial information you include.
Comments and materials we receive, as well as supporting documentation we used in preparing this proposed rule, will be available for public inspection on http://www.regulations.gov at Docket No. FWS-R2-ES-2012-0071, or by appointment during normal business hours at the Oklahoma Ecological Services Field Office (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).
Previous Federal Actions
On October 6, 1995, we received a petition, dated October 5, 1995, from the Biodiversity Legal Foundation, Boulder, Colorado, and Marie E. Morrissey (petitioners). The petitioners requested that we list the lesser prairie-chicken as threatened throughout its known historical range in the United States. The petitioners defined the historical range to encompass west-central Texas north through eastern New Mexico and western Oklahoma to southeastern Colorado and western Kansas and stated that there may have been small populations in northeastern Colorado and northwestern Nebraska. The petitioners also requested that critical habitat be designated as soon as the needs of the species are sufficiently well known. However, from October 1995 through April 1996, we were under a moratorium on listing actions as a result of Public Law 104-6, which, along with a series of continuing budget resolutions, eliminated or severely reduced our listing budget through April 1996. We were unable to act on the petition during that period. On July 8, 1997 (62 FR 36482), we announced our 90-day finding that the petition presented substantial information indicating that the petitioned action may be warranted. In that notice, we requested additional information on the status, trend, distribution, and habitat requirements of the species for use in conducting a status review. We requested that information be submitted to us by September 8, 1997. In response to a September 3, 1997, request by the Lesser Prairie-Chicken Interstate Working Group, we reopened the comment period for an additional 30 days beginning on November 3, 1997 (62 FR 59334). We subsequently published our 12-month finding for the lesser prairie-chicken on June 9, 1998 (63 FR 31400), concluding that the petitioned action was warranted but precluded by other higher priority listing actions.
On October 25, 1999, we published our combined plant and animal candidate notice of review, which initially identified the lesser prairie-chicken as a candidate for listing with a listing priority number (LPN) of 8 (64 FR 57534). Our policy (48 FR 43098; September 21, 1983) requires the assignment of an LPN to all candidate species. This listing priority system was developed to ensure that we have a rational system for allocating limited resources in a way that ensures those species in greatest need of protection are the first to receive such protection. The listing priority system considers magnitude of threat, immediacy of threat, and taxonomic distinctiveness in assigning species numerical listing priorities on a scale from 1 to 12. In general, a smaller LPN reflects a greater need for protection than a larger LPN. The lesser prairie-chicken was assigned an LPN of 8 indicating that the magnitude of threats was moderate and the immediacy of the threats to the species was high.
On January 8, 2001 (66 FR 1295), we published our resubmitted petition findings for 25 animal species, including the lesser prairie-
chicken, having outstanding ``warranted-but-precluded'' petition findings as well as notice of one candidate removal. The lesser prairie-chicken remained a candidate with an LPN of 8 in our October 30, 2001 (66 FR 54808); June 13, 2002 (67 FR 40657); May 4, 2004 (69
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FR 24876); May 11, 2005 (70 FR 24870); September 12, 2006 (71 FR 53755); and December 6, 2007 (72 FR 69033) Candidate Notices of Review. In our December 10, 2008 (73 FR 75176), candidate notice of review, we changed the LPN for the lesser prairie-chicken from an 8 to a 2. This change in LPN reflected a change in the magnitude of the threats from moderate to high primarily due to an anticipated increase in the development of wind energy and associated placement of transmission lines throughout the estimated occupied range of the lesser prairie-
chicken. Our June 9, 1998, 12-month finding (63 FR 31400) did not recognize wind energy and transmission line development as a threat because such development within the known range was almost nonexistent at that time. Changes in the magnitude of other threats, such as conversion of certain Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) lands from native grass cover to cropland or other less ecologically valuable habitat and observed increases in oil and gas development, also were important considerations in our decision to change the LPN. The immediacy of the threats to the species did not change and continued to be high. Our November 9, 2009 (74 FR 57804), November 10, 2010 (75 FR 69222), and October 26, 2011 (76 FR 66370) Candidate Notices of Review retained an LPN of 2 for the lesser prairie-chicken.
Since making our 12-month finding, we have received several 60-day notices of intent to sue from WildEarth Guardians (then Forest Guardians) and several other parties for failure to make expeditious progress toward listing of the lesser prairie-chicken. These notices were dated August 13, 2001; July 23, 2003; November 23, 2004; and May 11, 2010. WildEarth Guardians subsequently filed suit on September 1, 2010, in the U.S. District Court for the District of Colorado. A revised notice of intent to sue dated January 24, 2011, in response to motions from New Mexico Oil and Gas Association, New Mexico Cattle Growers Association, and Independent Petroleum Association of New Mexico to intervene on behalf of the Secretary of Interior, also was received from WildEarth Guardians.
This complaint was subsequently consolidated in the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia along with several other cases filed by the Center for Biological Diversity or WildEarth Guardians relating to petition finding deadlines and expeditious progress toward listing. A settlement agreement in In re Endangered Species Act Section 4 Deadline Litigation, No. 10-377 (EGS), MDL Docket No. 2165 (D.D.C. May 10, 2011) was reached with WildEarth Guardians in which we agreed to submit a proposed listing rule for the lesser prairie-chicken to the Federal Register for publication by September 30, 2012.
Summary of Recent and Ongoing Conservation Actions
Numerous conservation actions have been implemented within the historical range of the lesser prairie-chicken, many focused primarily on the currently occupied portion of the range, during the last 10 to 15 years. The State conservation agencies have taken a lead role in implementation of these actions, but several Federal agencies and private conservation organizations have played an important supporting role in many of these efforts. Recently, several multi-State efforts have been initiated, and the following section briefly discusses many of the known conservation efforts for the lesser prairie-chicken.
Multi-State Conservation Efforts
The CRP administered by the U.S. Department of Agriculture's (USDA) Farm Services Agency and targeted at agricultural landowners has provided short-term protection and enhancement of millions of acres within the range of the lesser prairie-chicken. The CRP is a voluntary program that allows eligible landowners to receive annual rental payments and cost-share assistance to remove land from agricultural production and establish vegetative cover for the term of the contract. Contract terms are for 10 to 15 years, and the amount and dispersion of land enrolled in CRP fluctuates as contracts expire and new lands are enrolled. All five States within the range of the lesser prairie-
chicken have lands enrolled in CRP. Many of the States, with the exception of Kansas, initially used nonnative grasses as the predominant cover type established on enrolled lands. Kansas chose to use native species of grasses as the cover type for many of their enrolled lands, resulting in a considerable benefit to lesser prairie-
chicken conservation. As the program has evolved since its inception in 1985, use of native grasses as the predominant cover type has been encouraged, resulting in even greater benefit for lesser prairie-
chickens. Use of native grasses in the CRP helps create suitable nesting and brood rearing habitat for the lesser prairie-chicken.
The State Acres For Wildlife Enhancement program (SAFE) is a conservation practice utilized under CRP to benefit high-priority species including the lesser prairie-chicken. Beginning in 2008, the SAFE program was implemented in Colorado, Kansas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas to target grassland habitat improvement measures within the range of the lesser prairie-chicken. These measures help improve suitability of existing grasslands for nesting and brood rearing by lesser prairie-chickens. In accordance with CRP guidelines, crop producers can voluntarily enroll eligible lands in 10- to 15-year contracts in exchange for payments, incentives, and cost-share assistance to establish natural vegetation on enrolled lands. Areas allocated for the SAFE program vary by State and are as follows: Colorado 8,700 hectares (ha) (21,500 acres (ac)); Kansas 12,141 (30,000 ac); New Mexico 1,052 ha (2,600 ac); Oklahoma 6,111 ha (15,100 ac); and Texas 31,727 (78,400 ac). Total potential enrollment in SAFE program is 59,731 ha (147,600 ac) or about 1 percent of the current estimated occupied range. The current status of the SAFE program, organized by State, is provided in the sections that follow.
In 2011, the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) began implementation of the Lesser Prairie Chicken Initiative. The Lesser Prairie Chicken Initiative provides conservation assistance, both technical and financial, to landowners throughout the Lesser Prairie Chicken Initiative's administrative boundary. The NRCS has partnered with other stakeholders to fund, through the Strategic Watershed Action Teams program, additional staff positions dedicated to providing accelerated and targeted technical assistance to landowners within the current range of the lesser prairie-chicken. Technical assistance is voluntary help provided by NRCS that is intended to assist non-federal land users in addressing opportunities, concerns, and problems related to the use of natural resources and to help land users make sound natural resource management decisions on private, tribal, and other non-federal land. This assistance may be in the form of resource assessment, practice design, resource monitoring, or follow-up of installed practices. The Lesser Prairie Chicken Initiative focuses on maintenance and enhancement of suitable habitat while benefiting agricultural producers by maintaining the farming and ranching operations throughout the region. Numerous partners are involved in this multi-state initiative including the State conservation agencies, the Playa Lakes Joint Venture, and the Wood Foundation. The Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP) and the Wildlife Habitat Incentives Program (WHIP) are the primary programs used
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to provide for conservation through the Lesser Prairie Chicken Initiative. The EQIP is a voluntary program that provides financial and technical assistance to agricultural producers through contracts up to a maximum term of 10 years in length. These contracts provide financial assistance to help plan and implement conservation practices that address natural resource concerns and opportunities to improve soil, water, plant, animal, air, and related resources on agricultural land. Similarly, the WHIP is a voluntary program designed for conservation-
minded landowners who want to develop and improve wildlife habitat on agricultural land, including tribal lands. Through WHIP, NRCS may provide both technical assistance and up to 75 percent cost-share assistance to establish and improve fish and wildlife habitat. Cost-
share agreements between NRCS and the landowner may extend up to 10 years from the date the agreement is signed. Through these two programs, NRCS has committed some $17.5 million to the Lesser Prairie Chicken Initiative in Texas alone. In 2010, the identified funds were allocated throughout the historical range, with some 33,956 ha (83,907 ac) placed under contract within those counties that intersected the estimated occupied range. By entering into a contract with NRCS, the landowner agrees to implement specified conservation actions through provisions of the applicable Farm Bill conservation program, such as WHIP or EQIP. Another 32,139 ha (79,417 ac) were allocated to contracts on lands outside of the estimated occupied range but within unoccupied portions of the historical range. In 2011, efforts were undertaken to more precisely apply the funds to areas within the estimated occupied range.
The North American Grouse Partnership, in cooperation with the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation and multiple State conservation agencies and private foundations, have embarked on the preparation of the prairie grouse portions of an overarching North American Grouse Management Strategy. The Prairie Grouse Conservation Plan, which was completed in 2008 (Vodehnal and Haufler 2008, entire), provides recovery actions and defines the levels of funding necessary to achieve management goals for all species of prairie grouse in North America. The prairie grouse portions of this strategy encompass some 26 million ha (65 million ac) of grassland habitat in the United States and Canada.
The Lesser Prairie-Chicken Interstate Working Group was formed in 1996. This group, composed largely of State agency biologists under the oversight of the Western Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies' Grassland Coordinator, meets annually to share information on the status of the lesser prairie-chicken, results of new research, and ongoing threats to the species. The Working Group has played an important role in defining and implementing conservation efforts for the lesser prairie-chicken. In 1999, they published a conservation strategy for the lesser prairie-chicken (Mote et al. 1999, entire). Then, in 2008, the Working Group published a lesser prairie-chicken conservation initiative (Davis et al. 2008, entire).
Since 2004, the Sutton Center has been working to reduce or eliminate the mortality of lesser prairie-chickens due to fence collisions on their study areas in Oklahoma and Texas. Forceful collisions with fences during flight can cause direct mortality of lesser prairie-chickens (Wolfe et al. 2007, pp. 96-97, 101). However, mortality risk appears to be dependent on factors such as fencing design (height, type, number of strands), length, and density, as well as landscape topography and proximity of fences to habitats used by lesser prairie-chickens. The Sutton Center has used competitive grants and other funding sources to either physically remove unnecessary fencing or to apply markers of their own design (Wolfe et al. 2009, entire) to the top two strands to increase visibility of existing fences. To date, approximately 335 kilometers (km) (208 miles (mi)) of barbed-wire fence in Oklahoma and Texas have been treated. Treatments are typically concentrated within 1.6 km (1 mi) of active lesser prairie-chicken leks. Approximately 208 km (129 mi) of unneeded fences have been removed. Collectively, these conservation activities have the potential to significantly reduce the threat of collision mortality on 44,110 ha (109,000 ac) of occupied habitat. Our Partners for Fish and Wildlife Program (PFW) initiated a similar fence marking effort in New Mexico during 2008. Although the amount of marked fences has not been quantified, the effort is an important contribution to ongoing conservation efforts. However, continued fence construction throughout the range of the lesser prairie-chicken and the localized influence of these conservation efforts likely limits the effectiveness of such measures at the population level.
The Service and the five State conservation agencies are currently working with 19 wind energy development companies to develop a programmatic Habitat Conservation Plan (HCP) for several species, including the lesser prairie-chicken. An HCP is a planning document required as part of an application for a permit for incidental take of a Federally listed species. The HCP describes the anticipated effects of the proposed taking; how those impacts will be minimized or mitigated; and how the HCP is to be funded. The Oklahoma Department of Wildlife Conservation (ODWC) received a nontraditional section 6 HCP planning grant that is supporting this effort. The HCP is scheduled to be finalized in the spring of 2014. We anticipate the conservation program of the HCP could involve acquisition and setting aside of conservation or mitigation lands.
Recently the five State conservation agencies developed an Internet-based mapping tool as a pilot project under the Western Governors' Association Wildlife Council. This tool, known as the Southern Great Plains Crucial Habitat Assessment Tool (CHAT), was made accessible to the public in September 2011. The CHAT is available for use by conservation managers, industry, and the public to aid in conservation planning for the lesser prairie-chicken. The tool identifies priority habitat for the lesser prairie-chicken including possible habitat corridors linking important conservation areas. The CHAT classifies areas on a scale of 1 to 5 by their relative value as lesser prairie-chicken habitat. The most important category is identified as ``irreplaceable'' and is indicative of areas that are rare or fragile and considered essential to achieving and maintaining population viability. The lowest category is considered ``common'' and represents areas that are relatively common and generally less limiting to lesser prairie-chicken populations or metapopulations. These areas are generally better suited for development uses. The CHAT includes other data layers that may facilitate conservation planning, including current and historical lesser prairie-chicken range, land cover types, oil and gas well density, presence of vertical structures, and hexagonal summary polygon to provide users contextual information about the surrounding landscape. A revision of the CHAT is planned in the coming months, and the tool will be updated annually. Use of the tool is currently voluntary but ultimately may play an important role in guiding future development and conserving important habitats.
Candidate Conservation Agreements (CCAs) and Candidate Conservation Agreements with Assurances (CCAAs) are formal, voluntary agreements
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between the Service and one or more parties to address the conservation needs of one more candidate species or species likely to become candidates in the near future. These agreements are intended to reduce or remove identified threats to a species. Implementing conservation efforts before species are listed increases the likelihood that simpler, more cost-effective conservation options are available and that conservation efforts will succeed. Development of CCAs and CCAAs is guided by regulations at 50 CFR 17.22(d) and 50 CFR 17.32(d).
Under a CCA, Federal managers and other cooperators (non-
governmental organizations and lease holders) implement conservation measures that reduce threats on Federal lands and leases. Under a CCAA, non-Federal landowners and lease holders voluntarily provide habitat protection or enhancement measures on their lands, thereby reducing threats to the species. A section 10(a)(1)(A) Enhancement of Survival Permit is issued in association with a CCAA. If the species is later listed under the Act, the permit authorizes take that is incidental to otherwise lawful activities specified in the agreement, when performed in accordance with the terms of the agreement. Further, the CCAA provides assurances that if the subject species is later listed under the Act, participants who are appropriately implementing certain conservation actions under the CCAA will not be required to implement additional conservation measures.
The lesser prairie-chicken is covered by a CCA with the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) and two ``umbrella'' CCAAs, one each in Texas and New Mexico. A draft umbrella CCAA for Oklahoma was made available for public review and comment on June 25, 2012 (77 FR 37917). An additional CCAA has been established with a single landowner in southwestern Kansas; however, this CCAA has since expired. Under these agreements, the participants agree to implement certain conservation measures that are anticipated to reduce threats to lesser prairie-chicken and improve their population stability, through increases in adult and juvenile survivorship, nest success, and recruitment rates and reduced mortality. Dependent upon the level of participation, expansion of the occupied range may occur. Conservation measures typically focus on maintenance, enhancement, or restoration of nesting and brood rearing habitat. Some possible conservation measures include removal of invasive woody plants such as mesquite and eastern red cedar, implementation of prescribed fire, marking of fences, removal of unneeded fences, improved grazing management, and similar measures that help reduce the impact of the existing threats.
All of the State conservation agencies and many Federal agencies within the range of the lesser prairie-chicken conduct outreach efforts intended to inform and educate the public about the conservation status of the species. Many of these efforts specifically target landowners and other interested stakeholders involved in lesser prairie-chicken conservation. Annual festivals focused on the lesser prairie-chicken are held in several States (Milnesand, New Mexico; Woodward, Oklahoma; and Canadian, Texas) that help inform and raise awareness for the public. Often festival participants are able to visit an active lesser prairie-chicken breeding area to observe courtship displays.
Colorado
The Colorado Parks and Wildlife (CPW) hosted a workshop on the conservation of the lesser prairie-chicken in late 2009. This workshop provided information to local landowners and other interested parties on conservation of the lesser prairie-chicken. Specific management actions, such as grassland restoration and enhancement, intended to benefit conservation of the lesser prairie-chicken were highlighted.
The NRCS is using EQIP and WHIP to implement habitat improvement projects for the lesser prairie-chicken in Colorado. Colorado also has implemented a Habitat Improvement Program (HIP) for the lesser prairie-
chicken that provides cost-sharing to private landowners, subject to prior consultation and approval from a CPW biologist, for enrolling fields or conducting habitat enhancements beneficial to the species. Approximately 2,250 ha (5,560 ac) have been enrolled in this program (Verquer and Smith 2011, p. 7). Additionally, Colorado has a Wildlife Habitat Protection Program designed to facilitate acquisition of conservation easements and purchase of lands for the lesser prairie-
chicken. The lesser prairie-chicken is one of five priorities for 2012, and up to $14 million is available in the program.
Currently about 4,433 ha (10,954 ac) have been enrolled under the lesser prairie-chicken CRP SAFE continuous sign-up in Colorado. These enrolled areas are typically recently expired CRP lands and contain older grass stands in less than optimal habitat condition. In late winter 2010 or early spring 2011, one-third of these enrolled lands received a forb and legume inter-seeding consisting of dryland alfalfa and other species to improve habitat quality. This effort is anticipated to result in the establishment of alfalfa and additional forbs, resulting in improved nesting and brood-rearing habitat. Some 4,249 ha (10,500 ac) of the initial 8,701 ha (21,500 ac) allocated for SAFE remain to be enrolled. High interest by landowners indicates that these additional acres will be enrolled in the near future (Verquer and Smith 2011, p. 7).
Our Partners for Fish and Wildlife Program (PFW) program has contributed financial and technical assistance for restoration and enhancement activities benefitting the lesser prairie-chicken in Colorado. The PFW program has executed 14 private lands agreements facilitating habitat restoration and enhancement for the lesser prairie-chicken on about 9,307 ha (23,000 ac) of private lands in southeastern Colorado.
A cooperative project between the CPW and the U.S. Forest Service (USFS) has established several temporary grazing exclosures adjacent to active leks on the Comanche National Grassland in an attempt to improve nesting habitat. The efficacy of these treatments is unknown, and further monitoring is planned to determine the outcome of these efforts (Verquer and Smith 2011, p. 7).
In addition, more than 4,450 ha (11,000 ac) have been protected by perpetual conservation easements held by CPW, The Nature Conservancy, and the Greenlands Reserve Land Trust.
Kansas
The Kansas Department of Wildlife, Parks, and Tourism (KDWPT) has targeted lesser prairie-chicken habitat improvements through various means including the Landowner Incentive Program, voluntary mitigation projects for energy development, and a state-level WHIP. The Landowner Incentive Program improved some 9,118 ha (22,531 ac) for lesser prairie-chickens during the period from 2007 to 2011. Since 2008, the KDWPT has provided $64,836 in landowner cost-share through the WHIP for practices benefitting the lesser prairie-chicken on about 2,364 ha (5,844 ac). Currently more than 11,662 ha (28,819 ac) of the original allocation have been enrolled under the lesser prairie-chicken CRP SAFE continuous signup in Kansas. Primary practices include tree removal, prescribed fire, grazing management (including perimeter fencing), and native grass establishment that will improve lesser prairie-chicken nesting and brood rearing habitat.
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Funds available through the state wildlife grants program also have been used to benefit the lesser prairie-chicken in Kansas. The KDWPT was awarded a 5-year state wildlife grant in 2009 focusing on lesser prairie-chicken habitat improvements. During the first funding cycle, a total of $181,127.34 was allocated to six projects encompassing some 1,484 ha (3,667 ac). During two subsequent application periods, nine more projects were funded at a cost of $180,584, targeting some 1,319 ha (3,260 ac).
Like several of the other States within the range of the lesser prairie-chicken, the KDWPT partnered with Pheasants Forever and NRCS to fund three employee positions that will provide technical assistance to private landowners participating in conservation programs with an emphasis on practices favorable to the lesser prairie-chicken. These employees will primarily assist in the implementation and delivery of the NRCS's Lesser Prairie Chicken Initiative in Kansas.
Additionally, KDWPT has a walk-in hunting program that was initiated in 1995 in an effort to enhance the hunting tradition in Kansas. The program provides hunters access to private property and has become one of the most successful access programs in the country. By 2004, more than 404,000 ha (1 million ac) have been enrolled in the program. Landowners receive a small payment in exchange for allowing public hunting access to enrolled lands. Payments vary by the amount of acres enrolled and length of contract period. Conservation officers monitor the areas, and violators are ticketed or arrested for offenses such as vandalism, littering, or failing to comply with hunting or fishing regulations.
The Service's PFW program has contributed financial and technical assistance for restoration and enhancement activities that benefit the lesser prairie-chicken in Kansas. Primary activities include control of invasive woody plant species like eastern red cedar and enhanced use of prescribed fire to improve habitat conditions in native grasslands. The PFW program has executed 54 private lands agreements on about 51,246 ha (126,878 ac) of private lands benefitting conservation of the lesser prairie-chicken in Kansas. An approved CCAA was developed on 1,133 ha (2,800 ac) in south-central Kansas; however, this CCAA has since expired.
New Mexico
In January 2003, a working group composed of local, state, and Federal officials, along with private and commercial stakeholders, was formed to address conservation and management activities for the lesser prairie-chicken and dunes sagebrush lizard (Sceloporus arenicolus) in New Mexico. This working group, formally named the New Mexico Lesser Prairie-Chicken/Sand Dune Lizard Working Group, published the Collaborative Conservation Strategies for the Lesser Prairie-Chicken and Sand Dune Lizard in New Mexico (Strategy) in August 2005. This Strategy provided guidance in the development of BLM's Special Status Species Resource Management Plan Amendment (RMPA), approved in April 2008, which also addressed the concerns and future management of lesser prairie-chicken and dunes sagebrush lizard habitats on BLM lands, and established the Lesser Prairie-Chicken Habitat Preservation Area of Critical Environmental Concern. Both the Strategy and the RMPA prescribe active cooperation among all stakeholders to reduce or eliminate threats to these species in New Mexico. As an outcome, the land-use prescriptions contained in the RMPA now serve as baseline mitigation (for both species) to those operating on Federal lands or non-Federal lands with Federal minerals.
Following approval of the RMPA, a CCA was drafted by a team including the Service, BLM, Center of Excellence for Hazardous Materials Management, and participating cooperators. The CCA addresses the conservation needs of the lesser prairie-chicken and dunes sagebrush lizard on BLM lands in New Mexico by undertaking habitat restoration and enhancement activities and minimizing habitat degradation. These efforts would protect and enhance existing populations and habitats, restore degraded habitat, create new habitat, augment existing populations of lesser prairie-chickens, restore populations, fund research studies, or undertake other activities on their Federal leases or allotments that improve the status of the lesser prairie-chicken. Through this CCA, Center of Excellence for Hazardous Materials Management will work with participating cooperators who voluntarily commit to implementing or funding specific conservation actions, such as burying powerlines, controlling mesquite, minimizing surface disturbances, marking fences, and improving grazing management, in an effort to reduce or eliminate threats to both species. The CCA builds upon the BLM's RMPA for southeast New Mexico. The RMPA established the foundational requirements that will be applied to all future Federal activities, regardless of whether a permittee or lessee participates in this CCA. The strength of the CCA comes from the implementation of additional conservation measures that are additive, or above and beyond those foundational requirements established in the RMPA. In addition to the CCA, a CCAA has been developed in association with the CCA to facilitate conservation actions for the lesser prairie-
chicken and dunes sagebrush lizard on private and State lands in southeastern New Mexico.
Since the CCA and CCAA were finalized in December 2008, 29 oil and gas companies have enrolled a total of 330,180 ha (815,890 ac) of mineral holdings under the CCA. In addition, 39 private landowners in New Mexico have enrolled about 616,571 ha (1,523,573 ac). There currently are additional pending mineral and ranching enrollment applications being reviewed and processed for inclusion. Recently, BLM also has closed 149,910 ha (370,435 ac) to future oil and gas leasing and closed some 342,770 ha (847,000 ac) to wind and solar development. They have reclaimed 536 ha (1,325 ac) of abandoned well pads and associated roads and now require burial of powerlines within 3.2 km (2 mi) of leks. Some 52 km (32.5 mi) of aboveground powerlines have been removed to date. Additionally, BLM has implemented control efforts for mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa) on some 148,257 ha (366,350 ac) and has plans to do so on an additional 128,375 ha (317,220 ac). More discussion of mequite control is addressed in the ``Shrub Control and Eradication'' section below.
Acquisition of land for the protection of lesser prairie-chicken habitat also has occurred in New Mexico. The New Mexico Department of Game and Fish (NMDGF) currently has designated 29 areas specifically for management of the lesser prairie-chickens totaling more than 11,850 ha (29,282 ac). These areas are closed to the public during the breeding and nesting season (March 1 to July 30), each year and restrictions are in place to minimize noise and other activities associated with oil and gas drilling. In 2007, the State Game Commission used New Mexico State Land Conservation Appropriation funding to acquire 2,137 ha (5,285 ac) of private ranchland in Roosevelt County. This property, the Sandhills Prairie Conservation Area (formerly the Lewis Ranch), is located east of Milnesand, New Mexico, and adjoins two existing Commission-owned Prairie-Chicken Areas. The BLM, on March 3, 2010, also acquired 3,010 ha (7,440 ac) of land east of Roswell, New Mexico, to protect key
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habitat for the lesser prairie-chicken. The Nature Conservancy owns and manages the 11,331-ha (28,000-ac) Milnesand Prairie Preserve near Milnesand, New Mexico.
The Service's PFW program also has been active in lesser prairie-
chicken conservation efforts in the State of New Mexico. Private lands agreements have been executed on 65 properties encompassing some 28,492 ha (70,404 ac) of lesser prairie-chicken habitat in New Mexico. Additionally the entire 3,683 ha (2,600 ac) allotted to the lesser prairie-chicken CRP SAFE continuous signup in New Mexico has been enrolled in the program.
Oklahoma
The ODWC partnered with the Service, the Oklahoma Secretary of Environment, The Nature Conservancy, the Sutton Center, and the Playa Lakes Joint Venture to develop the Oklahoma Lesser Prairie-Chicken Spatial Planning Tool in 2009. The goal of the Oklahoma Lesser Prairie-
Chicken Spatial Planning Tool is to reduce the impacts of ongoing and planned development actions within the range of the lesser prairie-
chicken by guiding development away from sensitive habitats used by the species. The Oklahoma Lesser Prairie-Chicken Spatial Planning Tool assigns a relative value rank to geographic areas to indicate the value of the area to the conservation of the lesser prairie-chicken. The higher the rank (on a scale of 1 to 8), the more important the area is to the lesser prairie-chicken. The Oklahoma Lesser Prairie-Chicken Spatial Planning Tool, therefore, can be used to identify areas that provide high-quality habitat and determine where development, such as wind power, would have the least impact to the species. The Oklahoma Lesser Prairie-Chicken Spatial Planning Tool also can be used to determine a voluntary offset payment based on the cost of mitigating the impact of the anticipated development through habitat replacement. The voluntary offset payment is intended to be used to offset the impacts associated with habitat loss. Use of the Oklahoma Lesser Prairie-Chicken Spatial Planning Tool and the voluntary offset payment is voluntary.
To date, in excess of $11.1 million has been committed to the ODWC through the voluntary offset payment program. Most recently, the ODWC entered into a Memorandum of Agreement with Chermac Energy Corporation to partially offset potential habitat loss from a planned 88.5-km (55-
mi) high-voltage transmission line. The line would run from near the Kansas State line to the Oklahoma Gas and Electric Woodward Extra High Voltage substation and will be used to carry up to 900 megawatts of wind energy from an existing wind farm in Harper County. The Memorandum of Agreement facilitates voluntary offset payments for impacts to the lesser prairie-chicken and their habitat. The agreement calls for the payment of a total of $2.5 million, with the money being used to help leverage additional matching funds from private and Federal entities for preservation, enhancement, and acquisition of lesser prairie-
chicken habitat. A large percentage of the voluntary offset payment funds have been used to acquire lands for the conservation of the lesser prairie-chicken and other fish and wildlife resources.
In 2008, the ODWC acquired two properties known to be used by the lesser prairie-chicken. The Cimarron Bluff Wildlife Management Area encompasses 1,388 ha (3,430 ac) in northeastern Harper County, Oklahoma. The Cimarron Hills Wildlife Management Area in northwestern Woods County, Oklahoma, encompasses 1,526 ha (3,770 ac). The ODWC also recently purchased 5,580 ha (13,789 ac) within the range of the lesser prairie-chicken to expand both the Beaver River and Packsaddle Wildlife Management Areas in Beaver and Ellis Counties, respectively.
Oklahoma State University hosts prescribed fire field days to help inform landowners about the benefits of prescribed fire for controlling invasion of woody vegetation in prairies and improving habitat conditions for wildlife in grassland ecosystems. Prescribed burning is an important tool landowners can use to improve the value of CRP fields and native prairie for wildlife, including the lesser prairie-chicken, by maintaining and improving vegetative structure, productivity, and diversity and by controlling exotic plant species. In 2009, the Environmental Defense Fund partnered with Oklahoma State University to prepare a report on the management of CRP fields for lesser prairie-
chicken management. The document (Hickman and Elmore 2009, entire) was designed to provide a decision tree that would assist agencies and landowners with mid-contract management of CRP fields.
Like the other States, ODWC has partnered in the implemention of a State WHIP designed to enhance, create, and manage habitat for all wildlife species, including the lesser prairie-chicken. The State WHIP recently has targeted money for lesser prairie-chicken habitat improvements.
Several different ``Ranch Conversations'' have been held in northwestern Oklahoma over the past 10 years, most recently hosted by the Oklahoma High Plains Resource Development and Conservation Office. These meetings invited private landowners and the general public to discuss lesser prairie-chicken conservation and management, receive information, and provide input on programs and incentives that are available for managing the lesser prairie-chicken on privately owned habitats.
In an effort to address ongoing development of oil and gas resources, the Oklahoma Wildlife Conservation Commission voted to approve a Memorandum of Understanding with the Oklahoma Independent Petroleum Association in February 2012 to establish a collaborative working relationship for lesser prairie-chicken conservation. Through this Memorandum of Understanding, the ODWC and Oklahoma Independent Petroleum Association will identify and develop voluntary steps (Best Management Practices) that can be taken by the Oklahoma Independent Petroleum Association's members to avoid and minimize the impacts of their operations on the lesser prairie-chicken. These Best Management Practices are currently under development.
Oklahoma received a USDA Conservation Innovation Grant to develop a wildlife credits trading program. When completed, the credit trading program will provide incentives to landowners who manage their lands for conservation of the lesser prairie-chicken. Currently, about 2,819 ha (6,965 ac) have been enrolled under the lesser prairie-chicken CRP SAFE continuous signup in Beaver, Beckham, Ellis, and Harper Counties.
The ODWC, in early 2012, entered into a contract with Ecosystem Management Research Institute to develop a conservation plan for the lesser prairie-chicken in Oklahoma. The primary goal of the Oklahoma Lesser Prairie Chicken Conservation Plan is to develop an overall strategy for conservation of the lesser prairie-chicken in Oklahoma. Development of the Oklahoma Lesser Prairie Chicken Conservation Plan will involve synthesis of all pertinent information currently available and input from diverse stakeholders. The Oklahoma Lesser Prairie Chicken Conservation Plan will identify priority conservation areas, population goals, and conservation strategies and actions; it also will link conservation actions to appropriate entities and contain an implementation timeline. A draft document is currently available, public comments were solicited through
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August 30, 2012, and the final plan is anticipated in September of 2012.
As discussed above, the ODWC has applied for an enhancement of survival permit pursuant to section 10(a)(1)(A) of the Act that includes a draft umbrella CCAA between the Service and ODWC for the lesser prairie-chicken in 14 Oklahoma counties (77 FR 37917). The draft CCAA and associated draft environmental assessment was made available for public review and comment in June 2012. The Service and ODWC are currently reviewing and addressing public comments, and a permitting decision is anticipated in the near future
The Service's PFW program also has contributed financial and technical assistance for restoration and enhancement activities that benefit the lesser prairie-chicken in Oklahoma. Important measures include control of eastern red cedar and fence marking and removal to minimize collision mortality. The Oklahoma PFW program has implemented 154 private lands agreements on about 38,954 ha (96,258 ac) of private lands for the benefit of the lesser prairie-chicken in the State.
Texas
The Texas Parks and Wildlife Department (TPWD) hosted a series of landowner meetings and listening sessions in 6 (Hemphill, Wheeler, Gray, Bailey, Cochran, and Gaines) of the 13 counties confirmed to be occupied by the lesser prairie-chicken in Texas. Private landowners and the general public were invited to discuss conservation and management, receive information, and provide input on programs and incentives that are available for managing the lesser prairie-chicken on privately owned lands. In response to these meetings, TPWD worked with the Service and landowners to finalize the first statewide umbrella CCAA for the lesser prairie-chicken in Texas. The conservation goal of the Texas CCAA is to encourage protection and improvement of suitable lesser prairie-chicken habitat on non-Federal lands by offering private landowners incentives to implement voluntary conservation measures through available funding mechanisms and by providing technical assistance and regulatory assurances concerning land use restrictions that might otherwise apply should the lesser prairie-chicken become listed. The conservation measures would generally consist of prescribed grazing; prescribed burning; brush management; cropland and residue management; range seeding and enrollment in various Farm Bill programs such as the CRP, the Grassland Reserve Program, and SAFE program; and wildlife habitat treatments through the EQIP. The Texas CCAA covers 50 counties, largely encompassing the Texas panhandle region, and was finalized on May 14, 2009. Currently, 22 private landowners (totaling approximately 255,044 ac) are enrolled under this agreement.
More recently, the TPWD, along with other partners, held five meetings in the Texas panhandle region as part of an effort to promote lesser prairie-chicken conservation. These meetings were held in May of 2009 and were intended to inform landowners about financial incentives and other resources available to improve habitat for the lesser prairie-chicken, including the SAFE program. The objective of the Texas SAFE program, administered by the Farm Service Agency, is to restore 2,093 ha (20,000 ac) of native mixed-grassland habitat for the lesser prairie-chicken in Texas. Additional allocations were approved, and currently some 31,245 ha (77,209 ac) have been enrolled in the SAFE program. Then, in March 2010, TPWD staff conducted a 2-day upland bird workshop where lesser prairie-chicken research and management was discussed.
In 2010, the NRCS and TPWD partnered to create an EQIP focused on lesser prairie-chicken conservation. This program provides technical and financial assistance to landowners interested in implementing land management practices for the lesser prairie-chicken within its historical range.
The Service's PFW program and the TPWD have been actively collaborating on range management programs designed to provide cost-
sharing for implementation of habitat improvements for lesser prairie-
chickens. The Service provided funding to TPWD to support a Landscape Conservation Coordinator position for the Panhandle and Southern High Plains region, as well as funding to support Landowner Incentive Program projects targeting lesser prairie-chicken habitat improvements (brush control and grazing management) in this region. More than $200,000 of Service funds were committed in 2010, and an additional $100,000 was committed in 2011. Since 2008, Texas has addressed lesser prairie-chicken conservation on some 5,693 ha (14,068 ac) under the Landowner Incentive Program. Typical conservation measures include native plant restoration, control of exotic vegetation, prescribed burning, selective brush management, and prescribed grazing. Currently, the PFW program has executed 66 private lands agreements on about 53,091 ha (131,190 ac) of privately owned lands for the benefit of the lesser prairie-chicken in Texas.
The TPWD continues to establish working relationships with wind developers and provides review and comment on proposed developments whenever requested. Through this voluntary comment process, TPWD provides guidance on how to prevent, minimize, and mitigate impacts from wind and transmission development on lesser prairie-chicken habitat and populations.
A Lesser Prairie-Chicken Advisory Committee also has been established in Texas and functions to provide input and information to the State's Interagency Task Force on Economic Growth and Endangered Species. The purpose of the task force is to provide policy and technical assistance regarding compliance with endangered species laws and regulations to local and regional governmental entities and their communities engaged in economic development activities so that compliance with endangered species laws and regulations is as effective and cost efficient as possible. Input provided by the Lesser Prairie-
Chicken Advisory Committee serves to help the Task Force prevent listing and minimize harm to economic sectors if listing does occur. The advisory committee also assists in outreach and education efforts on potential listing decisions and methods to minimize the impact of listing.
The TPWD has worked in conjunction with several Texas universities to fund several lesser prairie-chicken research projects. In one of those projects, TPWD evaluated the use of aerial line transects and forward-looking infrared technology to survey for lesser prairie-
chickens. Other ongoing research includes evaluation of lesser prairie-
chicken population response to management of shinnery oak and evaluation of relationships among the lesser prairie-chicken, avian predators, and oil and gas infrastructure.
In 2009, the U.S. Department of Energy awarded Texas Tech University and the TPWD a collaborative grant to conduct aerial surveys on approximately 75 percent of the estimated currently occupied range. This project aided in the initial development of a standardized protocol for conducting aerial surveys for the lesser prairie-chicken across the entire range. All five States are currently participating in these surveys; and a complete analysis of the results is expected sometime in the summer of 2012 and will be incorporated in the final determination.
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Recently, The Nature Conservancy of Texas acquired approximately 2,428 ha (6,000 ac) of private ranchland in Yoakum and Terry Counties for the purpose of protecting and restoring lesser prairie-chicken habitat. This acquisition helped secure a geographically important lesser prairie-chicken population.
In addition to participation in annual lesser prairie-chicken festivals, the TPWD published an article on the lesser prairie-chicken and wind development in Texas in their agency magazine in October of 2009. The TPWD and the Dorothy Marcille Wood Foundation also produced a 12-page color brochure in 2009 about the lesser prairie-chicken entitled ``A Shared Future.''
In summary, we recognize the importance of the conservation efforts undertaken by all entities across the range of the lesser prairie-
chicken. These actions outlined above have, at least in some instances, slowed, but not halted, alteration of lesser prairie-chicken habitat. However, continued implementation of these and similar future actions is crucial to lesser prairie-chicken conservation. In many instances, these efforts have helped reduce the severity of the threats to the species, particularly in localized areas. However, our review of conservation efforts indicates that the measures identified are not adequate to fully address the known threats, including the primary threat of habitat fragmentation, in a manner that effectively reduces or eliminates the threats (see discussion below). All of the efforts are limited in size or duration, and the measures typically are not implemented at a scale that would be necessary to effectively reduce the threats to this species across its known range. Often the measures are voluntary, with little certainty that the measures will be implemented. In some instances, mitigation for existing development within the range of the lesser prairie-chicken has been secured, but the effectiveness of the mitigation is unknown. Conservation of this species will require persistent, targeted implementation of appropriate actions over the range of the species to sufficiently reduce or eliminate the primary threats to the lesser prairie-chicken.
Available Conservation Measures
Conservation measures provided to species listed as endangered or threatened under the Act include recognition, recovery actions, requirements for Federal protection, and prohibitions against certain practices. Recognition often results in public awareness and facilitates conservation by Federal, State, Tribal, and local agencies; private organizations; and individuals. The Act encourages cooperation with the States and requires that recovery actions be carried out for all listed species. The protection required by Federal agencies and the prohibitions against certain activities involving listed species are discussed, in part, below.
Recovery Planning
The primary purpose of the Act is the conservation of endangered and threatened species and the ecosystems upon which they depend. The ultimate goal of such conservation efforts is the recovery of these listed species, so that they no longer need the protective measures of the Act. Subsection 4(f) of the Act requires the Service to develop and implement recovery plans for the conservation of endangered and threatened species. The recovery planning process involves the identification of actions that are necessary to halt or reverse the species' decline by addressing the threats to its survival and recovery. The goal of this process is to restore listed species to a point where they are secure, self-sustaining, and functioning components of their ecosystems.
Recovery planning includes the development of a recovery outline soon after a species is listed, preparation of a draft and final recovery plan, and periodic revisions to the plan as significant new information becomes available. The recovery outline guides the immediate implementation of urgently needed recovery actions and describes the process to be used to develop a recovery plan. The recovery plan identifies site-specific management actions that will achieve recovery of the species, measurable criteria that determine when a species may be downlisted or delisted, and methods for monitoring recovery progress. Recovery plans also establish a framework for agencies to coordinate their recovery efforts and provide estimates of the cost of implementing recovery tasks. Recovery teams (comprised of species experts, Federal and State agencies, nongovernment organizations, and stakeholders) are often established to develop recovery plans. When completed, the recovery outline, draft recovery plan, and the final recovery plan will be available on our Web site (http://www.fws.gov/endangered), or from our Oklahoma Ecological Services Field Office (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).
In general, the Service believes conservation and eventual recovery of the lesser prairie-chicken should consist of the establishment of secure strongholds or core areas of high quality habitat that are at least 10,117 ha (25,000 ac) in size and support 6-10 active leks, each being used by at least 6 males (Applegate and Riley 1998, p. 14). Ideally these areas would contain minimal amounts of habitat fragmentation and be managed such that the areas are secure from pressures of ongoing development. As fragmentation within these areas increases, the total amount of area would need to expand accordingly such that the total amount of high quality habitat is at least 10,117 ha. It is expected that a minimum of four strongholds will be needed, distributed across the ecological diversity of the species, in order to secure the status of the species. The Service views the species' occupied range as a matrix comprising four primary quadrants, each one exemplifying a unique combination of precipitation, temperature, and vegetation type variables. The quadrants are separated from east to west by the boundary between the shortgrass prairie and central-mixed-
grass-prairie Bird Conservation Regions and from north to south by the Canadian River. To ensure redundancy, resiliency, and representation across the species' range, the Service recommends at least one lesser prairie-chicken stronghold be established and maintained in each quadrant. Resiliency refers to the capacity of an ecosystem or an organism to recover quickly from a disturbance by tolerating or adapting to the anticipated alterations caused by the disturbance. Redundancy, in this context, refers to the ability of a species to compensate for fluctuations in or loss of populations across the species' range such that the loss of a single population has little or no lasting effect on the structure and functioning of the species as a whole. Representation refers to the conservation of the diversity of a species.
While a minimum of four strongholds is recommended in order to secure the status of the species, additional strongholds and connections between them will be needed in order to conserve the species. A more complete explanation of this preliminary conservation strategy can be found in the Service's (2012) technical white paper titled ``Conservation Needs of the Lesser Prairie-chicken'' (available at http://www.regulations.gov).
Implementation of recovery actions generally requires the participation of a broad range of partners, including other Federal agencies, States, Tribal and nongovernmental organizations,
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businesses, and private landowners. Examples of recovery actions include habitat restoration (e.g., restoration of native vegetation), research and monitoring, captive propagation and reintroduction, and outreach and education. Although land acquisition is an example of a type of recovery action, the recovery of many listed species cannot be accomplished solely on Federal lands because their range may occur primarily or solely on non-Federal lands. Consequently, recovery of these species will require cooperative conservation efforts involving private, State, and possibly Tribal lands.
If this species is listed, funding for recovery actions will be available from a variety of sources, including Federal budgets, State programs, and cost share grants for non-Federal landowners, the academic community, and nongovernmental organizations. In addition, under section 6 of the Act, the States of Colorado, Kansas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas would be eligible for Federal funds to implement management actions that promote the protection and recovery of the lesser prairie-chicken. Information on our grant programs that are available to aid species recovery can be found at: http://www.fws.gov/grants.
Although the lesser prairie-chicken is only proposed for listing under the Act at this time, please let us know if you are interested in participating in recovery efforts for this species. Additionally, we invite you to submit any new information on this species whenever it becomes available and any information you may have for recovery planning purposes (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).
Federal Agency Consultation
Section 7(a) of the Act, as amended, requires Federal agencies to evaluate their actions with respect to any species that is proposed or listed as endangered or threatened and with respect to its critical habitat, if any is designated. Regulations implementing this interagency cooperation provision of the Act are codified at 50 CFR part 402. Section 7(a)(4) requires Federal agencies to confer with the Service on any action that is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of a species proposed for listing or result in destruction or adverse modification of proposed critical habitat. If a species is listed subsequently, section 7(a)(2) of the Act requires Federal agencies to ensure that activities they authorize, fund, or carry out are not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or destroy or adversely modify its critical habitat. If a Federal action may adversely affect a listed species or its critical habitat, the responsible Federal agency must enter into formal consultation with the Service.
Some examples of Federal agency actions within the species' habitat that may require conference or consultation, or both, as described in the preceding paragraph include landscape-altering activities on Federal lands; provision of Federal funds to State and private entities through Service programs, such as the PFW Program, State Wildlife Grant Program, and Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration program; construction and operation of communication, radio, and similar towers by the Federal Communications Commission or Federal Aviation Administration; issuance of section 404 Clean Water Act permits by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; construction and management of petroleum pipeline and power line rights-of-way by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission; construction and maintenance of roads or highways by the Federal Highway Administration; implementation of certain USDA agricultural assistance programs; Federal grant, loan, and insurance programs; or Federal habitat restoration programs such as EQIP; and development of Federal minerals, such as oil and gas.
Prohibitions and Exceptions
The purposes of the Act are to provide a means whereby the ecosystems upon which endangered species and threatened species depend may be conserved, to provide a program for the conservation of such endangered species and threatened species, and to take such steps as may be appropriate to achieve the purposes of the treaties and conventions set forth in the Act. The Act is implemented through regulations found in the CFR. When a species is listed as endangered, certain actions are prohibited under section 9 of the Act, as specified in 50 CFR 17.21. These prohibitions, which will be discussed further below, include, among others, take within the United States, within the territorial seas of the United States, or upon the high seas; import; export; and shipment in interstate or foreign commerce in the course of a commercial activity.
The Act does not specify particular prohibitions, or exceptions to those prohibitions, for threatened species. Instead, under section 4(d) of the Act, the Secretary of the Interior was given the discretion to issue such regulations as he deems necessary and advisable to provide for the conservation of such species. The Secretary also has the discretion to prohibit by regulation with respect to any threatened species, any act prohibited under section 9(a)(1) of the Act. Exercising this discretion, the Service has developed general prohibitions (50 CFR 17.31) and exceptions to those prohibitions (50 CFR 17.32) under the Act that apply to most threatened species. Under 50 CFR 17.43, permits may be issued to allow persons to engage in otherwise prohibited acts. Alternately, for other threatened species, the Service develops specific prohibitions and exceptions that are tailored to the specific conservation needs of the species. In such cases, some of the prohibitions and authorizations under 50 CFR 17.31 and 17.32 may be appropriate for the species and incorporated into a special rule under section 4(d) of the Act, but the 4(d) special rule will also include provisions that are tailored to the specific conservation needs of the threatened species and which may be more or less restrictive than the general provisions at 50 CFR 17.31.
For example, for several fish species that are listed as threatened species, the Service has prepared a 4(d) special rule. In these situations, threatened fish co-occur with other species that are not listed as threatened or endangered species. Recreational fishing of the non-listed species may occur in these areas, usually under a permit or license program managed by the State Conservation Agency. In some of these cases, the Service has prepared a 4(d) special rule which generally prohibits the activities that are defined in the Act for endangered species, but does not prohibit take if it is incidental to recreational fishing activities that are conducted pursuant to an appropriate State program.
Similarly, we are considering whether it is appropriate to fashion a 4(d) rule that would not prohibit take that is incidental to implementing a sector-specific or comprehensive lesser prairie-chicken conservation program. We anticipate that conservation programs given credit under such a 4(d) rule would need to be developed and administered by an entity having jurisdiction or authority over the activities in the program; would need to be approved by the Service as adequately protective to provide a net conservation benefit to the lesser prairie-chicken; and would need to include robust adaptive management, monitoring, and reporting components sufficient to demonstrate that the conservation objectives of the plan are being met.
Several ongoing conservation efforts may satisfy or be moving toward this end, such as the Lesser Prairie-Chicken
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Initiative, implementation of a multi-State rangewide conservation strategy, or individual candidate conservation agreements with assurances that currently have permits issued pursuant to section 10 of the Act.
Accordingly, we are soliciting public comment as to which prohibitions, and exceptions to those prohibitions, are necessary and advisable to provide for the conservation of the lesser prairie-chicken (see Public Comments above). After reviewing the initial public comments on this topic, we will evaluate whether a 4(d) special rule is appropriate for the lesser prairie-chicken, and, if so, publish a proposed 4(d) special rule for public comment.
Currently, we have not proposed a 4(d) special rule for the lesser prairie-chicken. If the lesser prairie-chicken is ultimately listed as a threatened species without a 4(d) special rule, the general prohibitions (50 CFR 17.31) and exceptions to these prohibitions (50 CFR 17.32) for threatened species would be applied to the lesser prairie-chicken, as explained above. The prohibitions of section 9(a)(2) of the Act, codified at 50 CFR 17.31 for threatened wildlife, in part, make it illegal for any person subject to the jurisdiction of the United States to take (includes harass, harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture, or collect; or to attempt any of these), import, export, ship in interstate commerce in the course of commercial activity, or sell or offer for sale in interstate or foreign commerce any listed species. Under the Lacey Act (18 U.S.C. 42-43; 16 U.S.C. 3371-3378), it is also illegal to possess, sell, deliver, carry, transport, or ship any such wildlife that has been taken illegally. Certain exceptions apply to agents of the Service and State conservation agencies.
We may issue permits to carry out otherwise prohibited activities involving endangered and threatened wildlife species under certain circumstances. Regulations governing permits are codified at 50 CFR 17.32 for threatened species. A permit must be issued for the following purposes: for scientific purposes, to enhance the propagation or survival of the species, and for incidental take in connection with otherwise lawful activities. We anticipate that we would receive requests for all three types of permits, particularly as they relate to development of wind power facilities or implementation of Safe Harbor Agreements. Requests for copies of the regulations regarding listed species and inquiries about prohibitions and permits may be addressed to the Field Supervisor at the address in the FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT section.
It is our policy, as published in the Federal Register on July 1, 1994 (59 FR 34272), to identify to the maximum extent practicable at the time a species is listed, those activities that would or would not constitute a violation of section 9 of the Act. The intent of this policy is to increase public awareness of the effect of a proposed listing on proposed and ongoing activities within the range of species proposed for listing. The following activities could potentially result in a violation of section 9 of the Act; this list is not comprehensive:
(1) Unauthorized collecting, handling, possessing, selling, delivering, carrying, or transporting of the species, including import or export across State lines and international boundaries, except for properly documented antique specimens of these taxa at least 100 years old, as defined by section 10(h)(1) of the Act.
(2) Actions that would result in the unauthorized destruction or alteration of the species' habitat, as previously described in this rule. Such activities could include, but are not limited to, the removal of native shrub or herbaceous vegetation by any means for any infrastructure construction project or direct conversion of native shrub or herbaceous vegetation to another land use.
(3) Actions that would result in the long-term (e.g., greater than 3 years) alteration of preferred vegetative characteristics of lesser prairie-chicken habitat, as previously described in this proposed rule, particularly those actions that would cause a reduction or loss in the native invertebrate community within those habitats. Such activities could include, but are not limited to, inappropriate livestock grazing, the application of herbicides or insecticides, and seeding of nonnative plant species that would compete with native vegetation for water, nutrients, and space.
(4) Actions that would result in lesser prairie-chicken avoidance of an area during one or more seasonal periods. Such activities could include, but are not limited to, the construction of vertical structures such as power lines, fences, communication towers, and buildings; motorized and nonmotorized recreational use; and activities such as well drilling, operation, and maintenance, which would entail significant human presence, noise, and infrastructure.
Questions regarding whether specific activities would constitute a violation of section 9 of the Act should be directed to the Oklahoma Ecological Services Field Office (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).
Background
Species Information
The lesser prairie-chicken (Tympanuchus pallidicinctus) is a species of prairie grouse endemic to the southern high plains of the United States, commonly recognized for its feathered feet, stout build, ground-dwelling habit, and lek mating behavior. The lesser prairie-
chicken is closely related and generally similar, although not identical in every aspect of behavior and life history, to other species of North American prairie grouse (e.g., greater prairie-chicken (T. cupido pinnatus), Attwater's prairie-chicken (T. cupido attwateri), sharp-tailed grouse (T. phasianellus), greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus), and Gunnison's sage-grouse (C. minimus)). Plumage of the lesser prairie-chicken is characterized by a cryptic pattern of alternating brown and buff-colored barring, and is similar in mating behavior and appearance, although somewhat lighter in color, to the greater prairie-chicken. Males have long tufts of feathers on the sides of the neck, termed pinnae, that are erected during courtship displays. Pinnae are smaller and less prominent in females. Males also display brilliant yellow supraorbital eyecombs and dull reddish esophageal air sacs during courtship displays (Copelin 1963, p. 12; Sutton 1977, entire; Johnsgard 1983, p. 318). A more detailed summary of the appearance of the lesser prairie-chicken is provided in Hagen and Giesen (2005, unpaginated).
Lesser prairie-chickens are dimorphic in size, with the females being smaller than the males (See Table 1 in Hagen and Giesen 2005, unpaginated). Adult lesser prairie-chicken body length varies from 38 to 41 centimeters (cm) (15 to 16 inches (in)) (Johnsgard 1973, p. 275; Johnsgard 1983, p. 318), and body mass varies from 734 to 813 grams (g) (1.6 to 1.8 pounds (lbs)) for males and 628 to 772 g (1.4 to 1.7 lbs) for females (Giesen 1998, p. 14). Adults weigh more than yearling birds.
Taxonomy
The lesser prairie-chicken is in the Order Galliformes, Family Phasianidae, subfamily Tetraoninae, and is recognized as a species separate from the greater prairie-chicken (Jones 1964, pp. 65-73; American Ornithologist's Union 1998, p. 122). The lesser prairie-
chicken was first described as a subspecies of the greater prairie-
chicken (Ridgway 1873, p. 199) but was later
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named a full species in 1885 (Ridgway 1885, p. 355). Additional information on lesser prairie-chicken systematics and taxonomy can be found in Hagen and Giesen (2005, unpaginated).
Life-History Characteristics
Lesser prairie-chickens are polygynous (a mating pattern in which a male mates with more than one female in a single breeding season) and exhibit a lek mating system. The lek is a place where males traditionally gather to conduct a communal, competitive courtship display. The males use their specialized plumage and vocalizations to attract females for mating. The sequence of vocalizations and posturing of males, often described as ``booming, gobbling, yodeling, bubbling, or duetting,'' has been described by Johnsgard (1983, p. 336) and Haukos (1988, pp. 44-45) and is well summarized by Hagen and Giesen (2005, unpaginated). Male lesser prairie-chickens gather to display on leks at dawn and dusk beginning as early as late January and continuing through mid-May (Copelin 1963, p. 26; Hoffman 1963, p. 730; Crawford and Bolen 1976a, p. 97; Sell 1979, p. 10; Merchant 1982, p. 40), although fewer numbers of birds generally attend leks during the evening (Taylor and Guthery 1980a, p. 8). Male birds may remain on the lek for up to 4 hours (Copelin 1963, pp. 27-28; Sharpe 1968, p. 76; Crawford and Bolen 1975, pp. 808-810; Giesen 1998, p. 7), with females typically departing the lek following successful copulation (Sharpe 1968, pp. 154, 156). Dominant, usually older, males occupy and defend territories near the center of the lek where most of the copulations occur, while younger males occupy the periphery and compete for central access (Sharpe 1968, pp. 73-89; Wiley 1974, p. 203; Ehrlich et al. 1988, p. 259). A relatively small number of dominant males account for the majority of copulations at each lek (Sharpe 1968, p. 87; Wiley 1974, p. 203; Locke 1992, p. 1). Young males are rarely successful in breeding due to the dominance by older males. The spring display period may extend into June (Hoffman 1963, p. 730; Jones 1964, p. 66); however, Jones (1964, p. 66) observed some courtship activity even during July in Oklahoma.
Male lesser prairie-chickens exhibit strong site fidelity (loyalty to a particular area; philopatry) to their display grounds (Copelin 1963, pp. 29-30; Hoffman 1963, p. 731; Campbell 1972, pp. 698-699). Such behavior is typical for most species of prairie grouse (e.g., greater prairie-chicken, lesser prairie-chicken, sharp-tailed grouse, greater sage-grouse, and Gunnison's sage-grouse) in North America (Schroeder and Robb 2003, pp. 231-232). Once a lek site is selected, males persistently return to that lek year after year (Wiley 1974, pp. 203-204) and may remain faithful to that site for life. They often will continue to use these traditional areas even when the surrounding habitat has declined in value (for example, concerning greater sage-
grouse; see Harju et al. 2010, entire). Female lesser prairie-chickens, due to their tendency to nest within 2.5 km (1.5 mi) of a lek (Giesen 1994a, p. 97), also may display fidelity to nesting areas but the degree of fidelity is not clearly established (Schroeder and Robb 2003, p. 292). However, Haukos and Smith (1999, p. 418) observed that female lesser prairie-chickens are more likely to visit older, traditionally used lek sites than temporary, nontraditional lek sites (those used for no more than 2 years). Temporary or satellite leks occasionally may be established during the breeding season and appear indicative of population fluctuations (e.g., an expanding population has more satellite leks than a declining population) (Hamerstrom and Hamerstrom 1973, pp. 7, 13; Schroeder and Braun 1992, p. 280; Haukos and Smith 1999, pp. 415, 417) or habitat quality (Cannon and Knopf 1979, p. 44; Merrill et al. 1999, pp. 193-194). Lesser prairie-chicken satellite leks have been observed to form later in the breeding season and coincide with decreased attendance at the permanent leks (Haukos and Smith 1999, p. 418). These satellite leks consisted primarily of birds that were unable to establish territories on the permanent leks (Haukos and Smith 1999, p. 418). Locations of traditional, permanent lek sites also may change in response to disturbances (Crawford and Bolen 1976b, pp. 238-240; Cannon and Knopf 1979, p. 44).
Because of this fidelity to breeding areas, prairie grouse may not immediately demonstrate a population response when faced with environmental change. Considering that landscapes and habitat suitability can change rapidly, strong site fidelity can result in a lag period between when a landscape degradation occurs and when a population response is observed (Gregory et al. 2011, pp. 29-30). In some birds exhibiting strong philopatry, Wiens et al. (1986, p. 374) thought that the overall response to a particular habitat alteration might not become evident until after the most site-tenacious individuals had died. Delayed population responses have been observed in birds impacted by wind energy development (Stewart et al. 2007, pp. 5-6) and in greater sage-grouse impacted by oil and gas development (Doherty et al. 2010, p. 5). Consequently routine lek count surveys typically used to monitor prairie grouse may be slow in revealing impacts of environmental change (Gregory et al. 2011, pp. 29-30).
Leks are normally located on the tops of wind-swept ridges, exposed knolls, sparsely vegetated dunes, and similar features in areas having low vegetation height or bare soil and enhanced visibility of the surrounding area (Copelin 1963, p. 26; Jones 1963a, p. 771; Taylor and Guthery 1980a, p. 8). The features associated with lek sites also may contribute to the transmission of sounds produced during lekking (Butler et al. 2010, entire) and these sounds may aid females in locating lek sites (Hagen and Giesen 2005, unpaginated). Background noises are known to increase in landscapes altered by human development and may interfere with normal behavioral activities (Francis et al. 2009, p. 1415). Birds may be particularly vulnerable to elevated levels of background noise, due to their reliance on acoustic communication, and elevated noise levels may negatively impact breeding in some birds particularly where acoustic cues are used during the reproductive process (Francis et al. 2009, pp. 1415, 1418).
Areas that have been previously disturbed by humans, such as infrequently used roads, abandoned drilling pads, abandoned farmland, recently cultivated fields, and livestock watering sites also can be used as lek sites (Crawford and Bolen 1976b, pp. 238-239; Davis et al. 1979, pp. 81, 83; Sell 1979, p. 14; Taylor 1979, p. 707). However, ongoing human activity, such as presence of humans or noise, may discourage lekking by causing birds to flush, and, in some instances, may cause lek sites to be abandoned (Hunt and Best 2004, pp. 2, 124). Leks often are surrounded by taller, denser cover that is used for escape, thermal cover, and feeding cover. New leks can be formed opportunistically at any appropriate site within or adjacent to nesting habitat. Evidence of expanding lesser prairie-chicken populations tends to be demonstrated by increases in the number of active leks rather than by increases in the number of males displaying per lek (Hoffman 1963, p. 731; Snyder 1967, p. 124; Cannon and Knopf 1981, p. 777; Merchant 1982, p. 54; Locke 1992, p. 43).
Females arrive at the lek in early spring after the males begin displaying, with peak hen attendance at leks
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typically occurring in early to mid-April (Copelin 1963, p. 26; Hoffman 1963, p. 730; Crawford and Bolen 1975, p. 810; Davis et al. 1979, p. 84; Merchant 1982, p. 41; Haukos 1988, p. 49). Sounds produced by courting males serve to advertise the presence of the lek to females in proximity to the display ground (Robb and Schroeder 2005, p. 29). Within 1 to 2 weeks of successful mating, the hen will select a nest site, normally within 1 to 3 km (0.6 to 2 mi) of a lek (Copelin 1963, p. 44; Giesen 1994a, p. 97), construct a nest, and lay a clutch of 8 to 14 eggs (Bent 1932, p. 282; Copelin 1963, p. 34; Merchant 1982, p. 44; Fields 2004, pp. 88, 115-116; Hagen and Giesen 2005, unpaginated; Pitman et al. 2006a, p. 26). Nesting is generally initiated in mid-
April and concludes in late May (Copelin 1963, p. 35; Snyder 1967, p. 124; Merchant 1982, p. 42; Haukos 1988, pp. 7-8). Hens most commonly lay one egg per day and initiate incubation once the clutch is complete (Hagen and Giesen 2005, unpaginated). Incubation lasts 24 to 27 days (Coats 1955, p. 18; Sutton 1968, p. 679; Pitman et al. 2006a, p. 26) with hatching generally peaking in late May through mid-June (Copelin 1963, p. 34; Merchant 1982, p. 42; Pitman et al. 2006a, p. 26). Hens typically leave the nest within 24 hours after the first egg hatches (Hagen and Giesen 2005, unpaginated). Renesting may occur when the first attempt is unsuccessful (a successful nest is one in which at least one egg hatches) (Johnsgard 1973, pp. 63-64; Merchant 1982, p. 43; Pitman et al. 2006a, p. 25). Renesting is more likely when nest failure occurs early in the nesting season and becomes less common as the nesting season progresses (Pitman et al. 2006a, p. 27). Clutches associated with renesting attempts tend to be smaller than clutches at first nesting (Fields 2004, p. 88; Pitman et al. 2006a, p. 27).
Nests generally consist of bowl-shaped depressions in the soil (Giesen 1998, p. 9). Nests are lined with dried grasses, leaves, and feathers, and there is no evidence that nests are reused in subsequent years (Giesen 1998, p. 9). Adequate herbaceous cover, including residual cover from the previous growing season, is an important factor influencing nest success, primarily by providing concealment of the nest (Suminski 1977, p. 32; Riley 1978, p. 36; Riley et al. 1992, p. 386; Giesen 1998, p. 9). Young are precocial (mobile upon hatching) and nidifugous (typically leaving the nest within hours of hatching) (Coats 1955, p. 5). Chicks are usually capable of short flights by 14 days of age (Hagen and Giesen 2005, unpaginated). Broods may remain with females for up to 18 weeks (Giesen 1998, p. 9; Pitman et al. 2006c, p. 93), but brood breakup generally occurs by September when the chicks are approximately 70 days of age (Taylor and Guthery 1980a, p. 10). Males do not incubate the eggs, assist in chick rearing, or provide other forms of parental care (Wiley 1974, p. 203). Nest success (proportion of nests that hatch at least one egg) varies, but averages about 30 percent (range 0-67 percent) (Hagen and Giesen 2005, unpaginated).
Availability of food and cover are key factors that affect chick and juvenile survival. Chick survival averaged only about 25 percent during the first 35 days following hatching (Hagen 2003, p. 135). Survival for chicks between 35 days of age and the following spring was estimated to be 53.9 percent in southwestern Kansas (Hagen et al. 2009, p. 1326). Jamison (2000, p. 57) estimated survival of chicks from hatching to early autumn (60 days post-hatching), using late summer brood sizes provided in several early studies, to be 27 percent in Kansas and 43-65 percent in Oklahoma. These values were considerably higher than the 19 percent he observed in his study and may reflect an inability in the earlier studies to account for the complete loss of broods and inclusion of mixed broods (combined broods from several females) when estimating brood size (Jamison 2000, p. 57). Pitman et al. (2006b, p. 677) estimated survival of chicks from hatching to 60-
days post-hatching to be 17.7 percent. Recruitment was characterized as low with survival of juvenile birds from hatching to the start of the first breeding season the following year estimated to be only 12 percent (Pitman et al. 2006b, pp. 678-680), which may be a significant limiting factor in southwestern Kansas. However, the authors cautioned that these estimates might not be indicative of survival estimates in other areas due to low habitat quality, specifically poor distribution of nesting and brood-rearing habitats within the study area (Pitman et al. 2006b, p. 680).
Lesser prairie-chicken home ranges vary both by sex and by season and may be influenced by a variety of factors. Males tend to have smaller home ranges than do females, with the males generally remaining closer to the leks than do the females (Giesen 1998, p. 11). In Colorado, Giesen (1998, p. 11) observed that spring and summer home ranges for males were 211 ha (512 ac) and for females were 596 ha (1,473 ac). In the spring, home ranges are fairly small when daily activity focuses on lekking and mating. Home ranges of nesting females in New Mexico varied, on average, from 8.5 to 92 ha (21 to 227 ac) (Merchant 1982, p. 37; Riley et al. 1994, p. 185). Jamison (2000, p. 109) observed that range size peaked in October as birds began feeding in recently harvested grain fields. Median range size in October was 229 to 409 ha (566 to 1,400 ac). In Texas, Taylor and Guthery (1980b, p. 522) found that winter monthly home ranges for males could be as large as 1,945 ha (4,806 ac) and that subadults tended to have larger home ranges than did adults. More typically, winter ranges are more than 300 ha (740 ac) in size, and the size declines considerably by spring. Based on observations from New Mexico and Oklahoma, lesser prairie-chicken home ranges increase during periods of drought (Giesen 1998, p. 11; Merchant 1982, p. 55), possibly because of reduced food availability and cover. Davis (2005, p. 3) states that the combined home range of all lesser prairie-chickens at a single lek is about 49 square kilometers (sq km) (19 square miles (sq mi) or 12,100 ac).
Many grouse species are known to be relatively poor dispersers and normally move less than 40 km (25 mi) (Braun et al. 1994, pp. 432-433). Dispersal helps maintain healthy, robust populations by contributing to population expansion, recolonization, and gene flow (Sutherland et al. 2000, unpaginated). In lesser prairie-chickens, most movements within a given season are less than 10 km (6.2 mi), but Jamison (2000, p. 107) thought that movements as large as 44 km (27.3 mi) might occur in fragmented landscapes. Recent studies of lesser prairie-chicken in Kansas demonstrated some birds may move as much as 50 km (31 mi) from their point of capture (Hagen et al. 2004, p. 71). Although recorded dispersal movements indicate that lesser prairie-chickens are obviously physically capable of longer distance dispersal movements, these longer movements appear to be infrequent. Jamison (2000, p. 107) recorded only 2 of 76 tagged male lesser prairie-chickens left the 5,760 ha (14,233 ac) primary study area over a 3-year period. He thought site fidelity rather than habitat was more important in influencing movements of male lesser prairie-chickens (Jamison 2000, p. 111). Environmental factors also may influence dispersal patterns, particularly in fragmented landscapes where predation rates may be higher and habitat suitability may be reduced in smaller sized parcels. Lesser prairie-chickens appear to be sensitive to the size of habitat fragments and may avoid using parcels below a preferred size
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regardless of habitat type or quality (see separate discussion under ``Effects of Habitat Fragmentation'' below). As the landscape becomes more fragmented, longer dispersal distances over areas of unsuitable habitats may be required.
Daily movements of males tend to increase in fall and winter and decrease with onset of spring, with median daily movements typically being less than 786 meters per day (Jamison 2000, pp. 106, 112). In Texas, Haukos (1988, p. 46) recorded daily movements of 0.1 km (0.06 mi) to greater than 6 km (3.7 mi) by female lesser prairie-chickens prior to onset of incubation. Taylor and Guthery (1980b, p. 522) documented a single male moving 12.8 km (8 mi) in 4 days, which they considered to be a dispersal movement. Because lesser prairie-chickens exhibit limited dispersal ability and do not typically disperse over long distances, they do not readily recolonize areas following localized extinctions, particularly where the distance between habitat patches exceeds their typical dispersal capabilities.
In general, there is little documentation of historical dispersal patterns, and the existence of large-scale migration movements is not known. However, both Bent (1932, pp. 284-285) and Sharpe (1968, pp. 41-
42) thought that the species, at least historically, might have been migratory with separate breeding and wintering ranges. Taylor and Guthery (1980a, p. 10) also thought the species was migratory prior to widespread settlement of the High Plains, but migratory movements have not recently been documented. The lesser prairie-chicken is now thought to be nonmigratory.
Lesser prairie-chickens forage during the day, usually during the early morning and late afternoon, and roost at night (Jones 1964, p. 69). Diet of the lesser prairie-chicken is very diverse, primarily consisting of insects, seeds, leaves, and buds and varies by age, location, and season (Giesen 1998, p. 4). They forage on the ground and within the vegetation layer (Jones 1963b, p. 22) and are known to consume a variety of invertebrate and plant materials. For example, in New Mexico, Smith (1979, p. 26) documented 30 different kinds of food items consumed by lesser prairie-chickens. In Texas, Crawford and Bolen (1976c, p. 143) identified 23 different plants in the lesser prairie-
chicken diet. Jones (1963a, pp. 765-766), in the Artemesia filifolia (sand sagebrush) dominated grasslands of Oklahoma, recorded 16 different plant species eaten by lesser prairie-chickens.
Lesser prairie-chicken energy demands are almost entirely derived from daily foraging activities rather than stored fat reserves (Giesen 1998, p. 4). Olawsky (1987, p. 59) found that, on average, lesser prairie-chicken body fat reserves were less than 4.5 percent of body weight. Consequently, quality and quantity of food consumed can have a profound effect on the condition of individual birds. Inadequate food supplies and reduced nutritional condition can affect survival, particularly during harsh winters, and reproductive potential. Poor condition can lead to poor performance on display grounds, impact nesting success, and reduce overwinter survival. Sufficient nutrients and energy levels are important for reproduction and overwintering. Males expend energy defending territories and mating while females have demands of nesting, incubation, and any renesting. Reduced condition can lead to smaller clutch sizes. Because lesser prairie-chicken diets vary considerably by age, season, and habitat type and quality, habitat alteration can influence availability of certain foods. While not as critical for adults, presence of forbs and associated insect populations can be very important for proper growth and development of chicks and poults.
Generally, chicks and young juveniles tend to forage almost exclusively on insects, such as grasshoppers and beetles, and other animal matter while adults tend to consume a higher percentage of vegetative material (Giesen 1998, p. 4). The majority of the published diet studies have been conducted in the southwestern portions of the historical range where the Quercus havardii (shinnery oak) dominated grasslands are prevalent. Throughout their range, when available, lesser prairie-chickens will use cultivated grains, such as Sorghum vulgare (grain sorghum) and Zea mays (corn), during the fall and winter months (Snyder 1967, p. 123; Campbell 1972, p. 698; Crawford and Bolen 1976c, pp. 143-144; Ahlborn 1980, p. 53; Salter et al. 2005, pp. 4-6). However, lesser prairie-chickens tend to predominantly rely on cultivated grains when production of natural foods, such as acorns and grass and forb seeds are deficient (Copelin 1963, p. 47; Ahlborn 1980, p. 57).
Food availability for gamebird young is most critical during the first 20 days (3 weeks) post-hatching when rapid growth is occurring (Dobson et al. 1988, p. 59). Diet of lesser prairie-chicken chicks less than 5 weeks of age is entirely composed of insects and similar animal matter. Specifically, diet of chicks in New Mexico that were less than 2 weeks of age was 80 percent treehoppers (Mebracidae) (Davis et al. 1979, p. 71; Davis et al. 1980 p. 78). Overall, chicks less than 5 weeks of age consumed predominantly (87.7 percent) short-horned grasshoppers (Acrididae), treehoppers, and long-horned grasshoppers (Tettigonidae) (Davis et al. 1980, p. 78). Ants (Formicidae), mantids (Mantidae), snout beetles (Curculionidae), darkling beetles (Tenebrionidae), robber flies (Asilidae), and cockroaches (Blattidea) collectively provided the remaining 12.3 percent of the chicks' diet (Davis et al. 1980, p. 78). Similarly Suminski (1977, pp. 59-60) examined diet of chicks 2 to 4 weeks of age in New Mexico and found that diet was entirely composed of insects. Treehoppers, short-horned grasshoppers, and ants were the most significant (95 percent) items consumed, by volume. Insects and similar animal matter are a particularly prevalent component in the diet of young prairie-chickens (Drake 1994, pp. 31, 34, 36). Insects are high in protein (Riley et al. 1998, p. 42), and a high-protein diet was essential in pheasants for normal growth and feather development (Woodward et al. 1977. p. 1500). Insects and other arthropods also have been shown to be extremely important in the diet of young sage grouse and Attwater's prairie-
chicken (Service 2010, pp. 30-31).
Older chicks between 5 and 10 weeks of age ate almost entirely short-horned grasshoppers (80.4 percent) (Davis et al. 1980, p. 78). They also began to consume plant material during this period. Shinnery oak acorns, seeds of Lithospermum incisum (narrowleaf stoneseed), and foliage and flowers of Commelina erecta (erect dayflower) comprised less than 1 percent of the diet (Davis et al. 1980, p. 78). Correspondingly, Suminski (1977, pp. 59, 61) observed that chicks between 6 and 10 weeks of age had begun to consume very small quantities (1.3 percent by volume) of plant material. The remainder of the diet was still almost entirely composed of insects. By far the most prevalent insect was short-horned grasshoppers (Acrididae), accounting for 73.9 percent of the diet (Davis et al. 1980, p. 78). As the birds grew, the sizes of insects eaten increased. Analysis of food habits of juvenile birds from 20 weeks of age and older, based on samples collected between August and December, revealed that 82.6 percent of diet was plant material by volume and 17.4 percent was invertebrates (Suminski 1977, p. 62). Shinnery oak acorns contributed 67 percent of the overall diet, by volume. Key insects included crickets (Gryllidae), short-horned grasshoppers,
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mantids, and butterfly (Lepidoptera) larvae.
Plant materials are a principal component of the diet for adult lesser prairie-chickens; however, the composition of the diet tends to vary by season and habitat type. The majority of the diet studies examined foods contained in the crop (an expanded, muscular pouch within the digestive tract of most birds that aids in breakdown and digestion of foods) and were conducted in habitats supporting shinnery oak. However, Jones (1963b, p. 20) reported on lesser prairie-chicken diets from sand sagebrush habitats.
In the spring (March, April, and May), lesser prairie-chickens fed heavily on green vegetation (60 to 79 percent) and mast and seeds (15 to 28 percent) (Davis et al. (1980, p. 76; Suminski 1977, p. 57). Insects comprised less than 13 percent of the diet primarily due to their relative scarcity in the spring months. Treehoppers and beetles were the most common types of insects found in the spring diet. The proportion of vegetative material provided by shinnery oak leaves, catkins, and acorns was high. Similarly, Doerr (1980, p. 8) also examined the spring diet of lesser prairie-chickens. However, he compared diets between areas treated with the herbicide tebuthiuron and untreated areas, and it is unclear whether the birds he examined came from treated or untreated areas. Birds collected from treated areas likely would have limited access to shinnery oak, possibly altering the observed occurrence of shinnery oak in the diet. He reported that animal matter was the dominant component of the spring diet and largely consisted of short-horned grasshoppers and darkling beetles (Doerr 1980, pp. 30-31). Ants, ground beetles (Carabidae), and stinkbugs (Pentatomidae) were slightly less prevalent in the diet. Shinnery oak acorns and plant seeds were the least common component, by volume, in the diet in the Doerr (1980) studies.
In the summer, insects become a more important component of the diet. In New Mexico, insects comprised over half (55.3 percent) of the overall summer (June, July, and August) diet with almost half (49 percent) of the insects being short- and long-horned grasshoppers and treehoppers (Davis et al. 1980, p. 77). Plant material consumed was almost equally divided between foliage (leaves and flowers; 23.3 percent) and mast and seeds (21.4 percent). Shinnery oak parts comprised 22.5 percent of the overall diet. Olawsky (1987, pp. 24, 30) also examined lesser prairie-chicken diets during the summer season (May, June, and July); however, he also compared diets between areas treated with tebuthiuron and untreated pastures in Texas and New Mexico. While the diets in treated and untreated areas were different, the diet from the untreated area should be representative of a typical summer diet. Total plant matter from birds collected from the untreated areas comprised 68 to 81 percent, by volume (Olawsky 1987, pp. 30-32). Foliage comprised 21 to 25 percent, and seeds and mast, 36 to 60 percent, of the diet from birds collected in the untreated area. Shinnery oak acorns were the primary form of seeds and mast consumed. Animal matter comprised 19 to 32 percent of the overall diet, and almost all of the animal matter consisted of treehoppers and short-
horned grasshoppers (Olawsky 1987, pp. 30-32).
Several studies have reported on the fall and winter diets of lesser prairie-chickens. Davis et al. (1979, pp. 70-80), Smith (1979, pp. 24-32), and Riley et al. (1993, pp. 186-189) all reported on lesser prairie-chicken food habits from southeastern New Mexico (Chaves County), where the birds had no access to grain fields (Smith 1979, p. 31). They generally found that fall (October to early December) and winter (January and February) diets generally consist of a mixture of seeds, vegetative material, and insects.
The fall diet differed between years primarily due to reduced availability of shinnery oak acorns (Smith 1979, p. 25). Reduced precipitation in the fall of 1976 was thought to have influenced acorn production in 1977 (Riley et al. 1993, pp. 188). When acorns were available, shinnery oak acorns comprised almost 62 percent, by volume, of the diet but less than 17 percent during a year when the acorn crop failed (Smith 1979, p. 26). On average, total mast and seeds consumed was 43 percent, vegetative material was 39 percent, and animal matter was 18 percent by volume of the fall diet (Davis et al. 1979, p. 76). Over 81 percent of the animal matter consumed was short-horned grasshoppers (Davis et al. 1979, p. 76).
Crawford (1974, pp. 19-20, 35-36) and Crawford and Bolen (1976c, pp. 142-144) reported on the fall (mid-October) diet of lesser prairie-
chickens in west Texas over a 3-year period. Twenty-three species of plants were identified from the crops over the course of the study. Plant matter accounted for 90 percent of the food present by weight and 81 percent by volume. Grain sorghum also was prevalent, comprising 63 percent by weight and 43 percent by volume of total diet. Alhborn (1980, pp. 53-58) also documented use of grain sorghum during the fall and winter in eastern New Mexico. The remainder of the diet (10 percent by weight and 19 percent by volume) was animal matter (insects only). Over 62 percent, by volume, of the animal matter was composed of short-
horned grasshoppers. Other insects that were important in the diet included darkling beetles, walking sticks (Phasmidae), and wingless long-horned grasshoppers (Gryllacrididae). During the fall and winter in eastern New Mexico, Alhborn (1980, pp. 53-58) reported that vegetative material from shinnery oak constituted 21 percent of the total diet.
Similarly, Doerr (1980, p. 32) reported on the lesser prairie-
chickens from west Texas in the fall (October). The diet largely comprised animal matter (86 percent by volume) with short-horned grasshoppers contributing 81 percent by volume of the total diet. Stinkbugs also were prevalent in the diet. Foliage was the least important component, consisting of only 2.5 percent by volume. Seeds and acorns comprised 11 percent of the diet and consisted entirely of shinnery oak acorns and seeds of Linum rigidum (stiffstem flax).
Shinnery oak acorns (69 percent) and annual buckwheat (14 percent) were the primary components of the winter (January and February) diet of lesser prairie-chickens in southeastern New Mexico (Riley et al. 1993, p. 188). Heavy selection for acorns in winter was attributed to need for a high energy source to help sustain body temperature in cold weather (Smith 1979, p. 28). Vegetative matter was about 26 percent of overall diet, by volume, with 5 percent of the diet consisting of animal matter, almost entirely comprising ground beetles (Carabidae) (Davis et al. 1979, p. 78).
In contrast to the above studies, Jones (1963b, p. 20) and Doerr (1980, p. 8) examined food items present in the droppings rather than from the crops. Although this approach is valid, differential digestion of the food items likely overemphasizes the importance of indigestible items and underrepresents occurrence of foods that are highly digestible (Jones 1963b, p. 21; Doerr 1980, pp. 27, 33). Jones' study site was located in the sand sagebrush dominated grasslands in the more northern portion of the historical range where shinnery oak was unavailable. However, Doerr's study site was located in the shinnery oak dominated grasslands of the southwest Texas panhandle.
In the winter (December through February), where Rhus trilobata (skunkbush sumac) was present, Jones (1963b, pp. 30, 34) found lesser prairie-chickens primarily used sumac buds
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and foliage of sumac, sand sagebrush, and Gutierrezia sarothrae (broom snakeweed), particularly when snow was on the ground. Small annual plants present in the diet were Vulpia (Festuca) octoflora (sixweeks fescue), annual buckwheat, and Evax prolifera (big-headed evax; bigheaded pygmycudweed) (Jones 1963b, p. 30). Grain sorghum wasn't used to any appreciable extent, particularly when skunkbush sumac was present, but was eaten when available. Relatively few insects were available during the winter period. However, beetles were consumed throughout the winter season and grasshoppers were important in December. Doerr (1980, p. 28) found grasshoppers, crickets, ants, and wasps were the most commonly observed insects in the winter diet. Foliage from sand sagebrush and Cryptantha cinerea (James' cryptantha) was prevalent, but shinnery oak acorns were by far the most significant plant component detected in the winter diet.
In the spring (March through May), lesser prairie-chickens used seeds and foliage of early spring annuals such as Viola bicolor (johnny jumpup) and Silene antirrhina (sleepy catchfly) (Jones 1963b, p. 49). Skunkbush sumac continued to be an important component of the diet. Insect use increased as the spring season progressed. Doerr (1980, p. 29) also observed that grasshoppers and crickets were prevalent in the spring diet. However, foliage and acorns of shinnery oak were more abundant in the diet than any other food item.
In the summer (June through August), lesser prairie-chickens continued to use sumac and other plant material, but insects dominated the diet (Jones 1963b. pp. 64-65). Grasshoppers were the principal item found in the diet, but beetles were particularly favored in shrubby habitats. Similarly, Doerr (1980, p. 25) found grasshoppers and crickets were the most important component of the summer diet followed in importance by beetles. Jones (1963b, pp. 64-65) reported fruits from skunkbush sumac to be the most favored plant material in the diet. Doerr (1980, p. 25) found James cryptantha and erect dayflower were the two most important plants in the diet in his study. Insects remained a principal food item in the fall (September through November), at least until November when plant foods, such as Cyperus schweinitzii (flatsedge) and Ambrosia psilostachya (western ragweed) became more prevalent in the diet (Jones 1963b, pp. 80-81).
Little is known regarding the specific water requirements of the lesser prairie-chicken, but their distribution does not appear to be influenced by the presence of surface water. Total annual precipitation across the range of the lesser prairie-chicken varies, on average, from roughly 63 cm (25 in) in the eastern portions of the historical range to as little as 25 cm (10 in) in the western portions of the range. Consequently, few sources of free-standing surface water existed in lesser prairie-chicken historical range prior to settlement. Lesser prairie-chickens likely rely on food sources and consumption of dew to satisfy their metabolic moisture requirement (Snyder 1967, p. 123; Hagen and Giesen 2005, unpaginated; Bidwell et al. 2002, p. 6) but will use surface water when it is available. Because much of the historically occupied range is now used for domestic livestock production, numerous artificial sources of surface water, such as stock ponds and stock tanks, have been developed throughout the region. Several studies have documented use of these water sources by lesser prairie-chickens during the spring, late summer, and fall seasons (Copelin 1963, p. 20; Jones 1964, p. 70; Crawford and Bolen 1973, pp. 471-472; Crawford 1974, p. 41; Sell 1979, p. 31), and they may be particularly important during periods of drought (Crawford and Bolen 1973, p. 472; Crawford 1974, p. 41). Hoffman (1963, p. 732) supported development of supplemental water sources (i.e., guzzlers) as a potential habitat improvement tool. Others, such as Davis et al. (1979, pp. 127-128) and Applegate and Riley (1998, p. 15) cautioned that creating additional surface water sources will influence grazing pressure and possibly contribute to degradation of habitat conditions for lesser prairie-chickens. Some livestock watering facilities may create hazardous conditions (e.g., drowning; Sell 1979, p. 30), but the frequency of these incidents is unknown.
Lesser prairie-chickens have a relatively short lifespan and high annual mortality. Campbell (1972, p. 694) estimated a 5-year maximum lifespan, although an individual nearly 7 years old has been documented in the wild by the Sutton Avian Research Center (Sutton Center) (Wolfe 2010). Differences in survival may be associated with sex, weather, harvest (where allowed), age, and habitat quality. Campbell (1972, p. 689), using 9 years of band recovery data from New Mexico, estimated annual mortality for males to be 65 percent. Hagen et al. (2005, p. 82) specifically examined survival in male lesser prairie-chickens in Kansas and found apparent survival varied by year and declined with age. Annual mortality was estimated to be 55 percent (Hagen et al. 2005, p. 83). Male survival may be lower during the breeding season due to increased predation or costs associated with territorial defense while lekking (Hagen et al. 2005, p. 83). In female lesser prairie-
chickens, Hagen et al. (2007, p. 522) estimated that annual mortality in two remnant patches of native sand sagebrush prairie near Garden City, Finney County, Kansas was about 50 percent at a study site southwest of Garden City and about 65 percent at a study site southeast of Garden City).
Adult annual survival in Texas apparently varied by habitat type. In sand sagebrush habitat, survival was estimated to be 0.52, whereas survival was only 0.31 in shinnery oak habitat (Lyons et al. 2009, p. 93). For both areas, survival was about 4 percent lower during the breeding season than during the nonbreeding period (Lyons et al. 2009, p. 93). Hagen et al. (2007, p. 522) also reported lower survival during the reproductive season (31 percent mortality) compared to the nonbreeding season (23 percent mortality) in Kansas. However, survival times did not differ between sand sagebrush habitats in Oklahoma and shinnery oak habitats in New Mexico (Patten et al. 2005a, p. 1274). Birds occupying sites with greater than 20 percent shrub cover survived longer than those in areas with less dense shrub cover (Patten et al. 2005a, p. 1275).
Habitat
The preferred habitat of the lesser prairie-chicken is native short- and mixed-grass prairies having a shrub component dominated by Artemesia filifolia (sand sagebrush) or Quercus havardii (shinnery oak) (hereafter described as native rangeland) (Donaldson 1969, pp. 56, 62; Taylor and Guthery 1980a, p. 6; Giesen 1998, pp. 3-4). Small shrubs are important for summer shade (Copelin 1963, p. 37; Donaldson 1969, pp. 44-45, 62), winter protection, and as supplemental foods (Johnsgard 1979, p. 112). Historically, trees and other tall woody vegetation were largely absent from these grassland ecosystems, except in canyons and along water courses. Landscapes supporting less than 63 percent native rangeland appear incapable of supporting self-sustaining lesser prairie-chicken populations (Crawford and Bolen 1976a, p. 102).
Outside of the grasslands in Kansas, lesser prairie-chickens are primarily found in the sand sagebrush dominated rangelands of Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas, and in the shinnery oak-bluestem grasslands of
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New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas. Sand sagebrush is a 0.6- to 1.8-m (2- to 6-ft) tall shrub that occurs in 11 States of the central and western United States (Shultz 2006, p. 508). Within the central and southern Great Plains, sand sagebrush is often a dominant species on sandy soils and may exhibit a foliar cover of 20 to 50 percent (Collins et al. 1987, p. 94; Vermeire 2002, p. 1). Sand-sage shrublands have been estimated to occupy some 4.8 million ha (11.8 million ac) in the central and southern Great Plains (Berg 1994, p. 99).
The shinnery oak vegetation type is endemic to the southern great plains and is estimated to have historically covered an area of 2.3 million ha (over 5.6 million ac), although its current range has been considerably reduced through eradication (Mayes et al. 1998, p. 1609). The distribution of shinnery oak overlaps much of the historical lesser prairie-chicken range in New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas (Peterson and Boyd 1998, p. 2). Shinnery oak is a rhizomatous (a horizontal, usually underground stem that often sends out roots and shoots from its nodes) shrub that reproduces slowly and does not invade previously unoccupied areas (Dhillion et al. 1994, p. 52). Mayes et al. (1998, p. 1611) documented that a single rhizomatous shinnery oak can occupy an area exceeding 7,000 square meters (sq m) (75,300 square feet (sq ft)). While not confirmed through extensive research throughout the plant's range, it has been observed that shinnery oak in some areas multiplies by slow rhizomatous spread and eventual fracturing of underground stems from the original plant. In this way, single clones have been documented to occupy up to 81 ha (200 ac) over an estimated timeframe of 13,000 years (Cook 1985, p. 264; Anonymous 1997, p. 483), making shinnery oak possibly the largest and longest-lived plant species in the world.
Within the historical range of the species, the USDA's CRP, administered by the Farm Services Administration, has promoted the establishment and conservation of certain grassland habitats. Originally funded as a mechanism to reduce erosion from highly erodible soils, the program has since become a means to at least temporarily retire any environmentally sensitive cropland from production and establish vegetative cover on that land. Initially, many types of grasses were approved for use as permanent vegetative cover, including several that are introduced or nonnative. As the program changed and efforts to establish more environmentally beneficial grasses gained momentum, the use of native grasses became more prevalent. In Kansas in particular, much of the vegetative cover established through the CRP within the historical range of the lesser prairie-chicken was a mix of native warm-season grasses such as Schizachyrium scoparium (little bluestem), Bouteloua curtipendula (sideoats grama), and Panicum virgatum (switchgrass) (Rodgers and Hoffman 2005, p. 120). These grasses are important components of lesser prairie-chicken habitat and have led to reoccupation of large areas of the historical range in western Kansas by lesser prairie-chickens, particularly north of the Arkansas River.
In other areas, nonnative grasses were used that provided limited to no habitat value for the lesser prairie-chicken. Exotic old world bluestems and Eragrostis curvula (weeping lovegrass) were extensively seeded in CRP tracts in Texas, New Mexico, and Oklahoma (Haufler et al. 2012, p. 17). For example, about 70 to 80 percent of the original CRP seedings in eastern New Mexico consisted of dense, single-species stands of weeping lovegrass, Bothriochloa bladhii (Caucasian bluestem), or B. ischaemum (yellow bluestem) (Rodgers and Hoffman 2005, p. 122). Consequently these areas contributed very little to lesser prairie-
chicken conservation as they provide poor-quality nesting habitat. As these nonnative grasslands have matured, some species of native grasses and shrubs are beginning to reestablish within these fields. Although these areas still have limited habitat value for lesser prairie-
chickens, the species is occasionally using these older stands of grass for roosting and nesting (Rodgers and Hoffman 2005, p. 122). Where CRP lands support the suitable vegetative structure and composition required by lesser prairie-chickens, these fields can provide suitable, but likely temporary, habitat. More information on the CRP program is provided in the sections that follow.
Leks are characterized by areas of sparse vegetation and are generally located on elevated features, such as ridges or grassy knolls (Giesen 1998, p. 4). Vegetative cover characteristics, primarily height and density, may have a greater influence on lek establishment than elevation (Giesen 1998, p. 4). Copelin (1963, p. 26) observed display grounds within short grass meadows of valleys where sand sagebrush was tall and dense on the adjacent ridges. Early spring fires also encouraged lek establishment when vegetation likely was too high (0.6 to 1.0 m (2.0 to 3.3 ft)) to facilitate displays (Cannon and Knopf 1979, pp. 44-45). Several authors, as discussed in Giesen (1998, p. 4), observed that roads, oil and gas pads, and similar forms of human disturbance create habitat conditions that may encourage lek establishment. However, Taylor (1979, p. 707) emphasized that human disturbance, which is often associated with these artificial lek sites, is detrimental during the breeding season and did not encourage construction of potential lek sites in areas subject to human disturbance. Giesen (1998, p. 9) reported that hens usually nest and rear broods within 3.4 km (1.7 mi) of leks and may return to nest in areas of previously successful nests (Riley 1978, p. 36). Giesen (1994a, pp. 97-98) and Hagen and Giesen (2005, unpaginated) also reported that hens often nest closer to a lek other than the one on which they mated.
Typical nesting habitat can be described as native rangeland, although there is some evidence that the height and density of forbs (broad-leaved herb other than a grass) and residual grasses is greater at nesting locations than on adjacent rangeland (Giesen 1998, p. 9). Nests are often located on north and northeast facing slopes as protection from direct sunlight and the prevailing southwest winds (Giesen 1998, p. 9). Giesen (1998, p. 9) reports that habitat used by young is similar to that of adults, and the daily movement of the broods is usually 300 m (984 ft) or less. After the broods break up, the juveniles form mixed flocks with adult birds (Giesen 1998, p. 9), and juvenile habitat use is similar to that of adult birds. Giesen (1998, p. 4) reports that wintering habitat is similar to that used for breeding with the exception that small grain fields are used more heavily during this period than during the breeding season. Habitats used by broods had greater total biomass of invertebrates and forb cover than areas not frequented by broods in Kansas, emphasizing the importance of forbs in providing the invertebrate populations used by young lesser prairie-chickens (Jamison et al. 2002, pp. 520, 524).
Home range and dispersal distances of lesser prairie-chickens are indicative of their requirement for large blocks of interconnected, ecologically diverse native grassland. As reported by Giesen (1998, p. 11) and Taylor and Guthery (1980b, p. 522), a single lesser prairie-
chicken may have a home range (geographic area to which an organism typically confines its activity) of 211 ha (512 ac) to 1,945 ha (4,806 ac). More recently, studies in Kansas demonstrated some birds may move as much as 50 km (31 mi) from their point of capture (Hagen et al. 2004, p. 71). While some overlap in home ranges is
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expected, rarely would those home ranges overlap completely due to competition for space, food, and other resources. Taylor and Guthery (1980a, p. 11) used lesser prairie-chicken movements in west Texas to estimate the area needed to meet the minimum requirements of a lek population. A contiguous area of suitable habitat encompassing at least 32 sq km (12 sq mi or 7,900 ac) would support about 90 percent of the annual activity associated with a given lek and an area of 72 sq km (28 sq mi or 17,791 ac) would include all of the annual activity associated with a lek except for some movements of juveniles (Taylor and Guthery (1980a, p. 11). Bidwell et al. (2002. p. 3) conclude that at least 101.2 sq km (39 sq mi or 25,000 ac) of contiguous high-quality habitat is needed to maintain a sustainable population of lesser prairie-
chickens. Because lesser prairie-chickens typically nest and rear their broods in proximity to a lek other than the one used for mating (Giesen 1998, p. 9), a complex of two or more leks is likely the very minimum required to sustain a viable lesser prairie-chicken population. Hagen et al. (2004, p. 76) recommended that lesser prairie-chicken management areas be at least 4,096 sq km (1,581 sq mi or 1,012,140 ac) in size. Management areas of this size would incorporate the longest-known movements of individual birds and be large enough to maintain healthy lesser prairie-chicken populations despite the presence of potentially large areas of unsuitable habitat.
Historical Range and Distribution
Prior to description by Ridgeway in 1885, most observers did not differentiate between the lesser and greater prairie-chicken. Consequently, estimating historical abundance and occupied range is difficult. Historically, the lesser prairie-chicken is known to have occupied native rangeland in portions of southeastern Colorado (Giesen 1994b, pp. 175-182), southwestern Kansas (Baker 1953, p. 9; Schwilling 1955, p. 10), western Oklahoma (Duck and Fletcher 1944, p. 68), the Texas panhandle (Henika 1940, p. 15; Oberholser 1974, p. 268), and eastern New Mexico (Ligon 1927, pp. 123-127).
Lesser prairie-chickens also have been documented from Nebraska, based on at least four specimens known to have been collected near Danbury in Red Willow County during the 1920s (Sharpe 1968, p. 50). Sharpe (1968, pp. 51, 174) considered the occurrence of lesser prairie-
chickens in Nebraska to be the result of a short-lived range expansion facilitated by settlement and cultivation of grain crops. Lesser prairie-chickens are not currently believed to occur in Nebraska. Sharpe did not report any confirmed observations since the 1920s (Sharpe 1968, entire), and no sightings have been documented despite searches over the last 5 years in southwestern Nebraska (Walker 2011). Therefore, Nebraska is generally considered outside the historical range of the species.
Based on a single source, Crawford (1974, p. 4) reported that the lesser prairie-chicken was successfully introduced to the island of Niihau in the State of Hawaii. Prairie-chickens were known to have been released on Niihau, a privately owned island, in 1934 (Fisher 1951, p. 37), but the taxonomic identity of those birds has not ever been confirmed. Schwartz and Schwartz (1949, p. 120) believed that these birds were indeed lesser prairie-chickens. Fisher and members of his expedition did observe at least eight individual prairie-chickens during a visit to Niihau in 1947, but no specimens were collected due to their scarcity and the landowner's requests (Fisher 1951, pp. 33-34, 37). Consequently, the specific identity of these birds could not be confirmed, and their current status on the island remains unknown (Pratt et al. 1987, p. 324; Pyle and Pyle 2009, p. 5). Similarly, Jeschke and Strayer (2008, p. 127) indicate that both lesser and greater prairie-chickens were introduced to parts of Europe, but both species failed to become established there. Although we do not believe that either greater or lesser prairie-chickens still persist in Hawaii or Europe, we request that any recent information on the status of lesser prairie-chickens in either Hawaii or Europe be provided to us during the comment period.
Johnsgard (2002, p. 32) estimated the maximum historical range of the lesser prairie-chicken to have encompassed some 260,000 to 388,500 sq km (100,000 to 150,000 sq mi), with about two-thirds of the historical range occurring in Texas. Taylor and Guthery (1980a, p. 1, based on Aldrich 1963, p. 537) estimated that, by the 1880s, the area occupied by lesser prairie-chicken was about 358,000 sq km (138,225 sq mi), and, by 1969, they estimated the occupied range had declined to roughly 125,000 sq km (48,263 sq mi) due to widespread conversion of native prairie to cultivated cropland. Taylor and Cuthery (1980a, p. 4) estimated that, by 1980, the occupied range encompassed only 27,300 sq km (10,541 sq mi), representing a 90 to 93 percent reduction in occupied range since pre-European settlement and a 92 percent reduction in the occupied range since the 1880s.
In 2007, cooperative mapping efforts by species experts from the Colorado Parks and Wildlife (CPW) (formerly Colorado Division of Wildlife), Kansas Department of Wildlife, Parks and Tourism (KDWPT) (formerly Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks), New Mexico Department of Game and Fish (NMDGF), Oklahoma Department of Wildlife Conservation (ODWC), and Texas Parks and Wildlife Department (TPWD), in cooperation with the Playa Lakes Joint Venture, reestimated the maximum historical and occupied ranges. They determined the maximum occupied range, prior to European settlement, to have been approximately 456,087 sq km (176,096 sq mi) (Playa Lakes Joint Venture 2007, p. 1). The approximate historical range, by State, based on this cooperative mapping effort is the following: 21,911 sq km (8,460 sq mi) in Colorado; 76,757 sq km (29,636 sq mi) in Kansas; 52,571 sq km (20,298 sq mi) in New Mexico; 68,452 sq km (26,430 sq mi) in Oklahoma; and 236,396 sq km (91,273 sq mi) in Texas. Since 2007, the CPW slightly expanded the historical range in Colorado, based on new information. The total maximum historically occupied range, based on this adjustment, is now estimated to be about 466,998 sq km (180,309 sq mi).
Current Range and Distribution
The lesser prairie-chicken still occurs within the States of Colorado, Kansas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas (Giesen 1998, p. 3). During the 2007 mapping effort (Playa Lakes Joint Venture 2007, p. 1; Davis et al. 2008, p 19), the State conservation agencies estimated the current occupied range encompassed 65,012 sq km (25,101 sq mi). The approximate occupied range, by State, based on this cooperative mapping effort is 4,216 sq km (1,628 sq mi) in Colorado; 29,130 sq km (11,247 sq mi) in Kansas; 8,570 sq km (3,309 sq mi) in New Mexico; 10,969 sq km (4,235 sq mi) in Oklahoma; and 12,126 sq km (4,682 sq mi) in Texas.
Since 2007, the occupied and historical range in Colorado and the occupied range in Kansas have been adjusted to reflect new information. The currently occupied range in Colorado is now estimated to be 4,456 sq km (1,720 sq mi), and, in Kansas, the lesser prairie-chicken is now thought to occupy about 34,479 sq km (13,312 sq mi). In Kansas, the adjustment was due to expansion of lesser prairie-chicken populations in Ellis, Graham, Sheridan, and Trego Counties. The total estimated occupied range is now believed to encompass
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some 70,601 sq km (27,259 sq mi). The currently occupied range now represents roughly 16 percent of the revised historical range. This value is a close approximation because a small portion of the expanded range in Kansas lies outside the estimated maximum historical range and was not included in this analysis. Considering there are historical records from Nebraska, the maximum historical range currently in use is likely smaller than the maximum that would exist if the temporarily occupied range in Nebraska was included in the analysis.
The overall distribution of lesser prairie-chicken within all States except Kansas has declined sharply, and the species is generally restricted to variously sized, often highly fragmented parcels of untilled native rangeland (Taylor and Guthery 1980a, pp. 2-5) or areas with significant CRP enrollments that were initially seeded with native grasses (Rodgers and Hoffman 2005, pp. 122-123). The estimated current occupied range, based on cooperative mapping efforts described above, and as derived from calculations of the area of each mapped polygon using geographical information software, represents about an 84 percent reduction in overall occupied range since pre-European settlement.
Table 1--Estimated Historical and Current Occupied Lesser Prairie-Chicken Range by State
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Extent
State Historical range Current range -----------------------------------------
Historical Current
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Colorado....................... 6 counties........ 4 counties....... 21,910.9 sq km 4,216.5 sq km
(8,459.8 sq mi) (1,628.0 sq mi)
Kansas......................... 38 counties....... 35 counties...... 76,757.4 sq km 29,130.2 sq km
(29,636.2 sq mi) (11,247.2 sq mi)
New Mexico..................... 12 counties....... 7 counties....... 52,571.2 sq km 8,570.1 sq km
(20,297.9 sq mi) (3,308.9 sq mi)
Oklahoma....................... 22 counties....... 8 counties....... 68,452.1 sq km 10,969.1 sq km
(26,429.5 sq mi) (4,235.2 sq mi)
Texas.......................... 34 counties....... 13 counties *.... 236,396.2 sq km 12,126.5 sq km
(1940s-50s)....... (91,273.1 sq mi) (4,682.1 sq mi)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
TOTAL...................... 107 counties...... 67 counties...... 456,087.8 sq km 65,012.4 sq km
(176,096.5 sq mi) (25,101.4 sq mi)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
* Timmer (2012, p. 36) only observed lesser prairie-chickens in 12 counties.
Population Estimates
Very little information is available regarding the size of lesser prairie-chicken populations prior to 1900. Once the five States supporting lesser prairie-chickens were officially opened for settlement beginning in the late 1800s, settlement occurred quickly and the landscape began to change rapidly. Numbers of lesser prairie-
chickens likely changed rapidly as well. Despite the lack of conclusive information on population size, the lesser prairie-chicken was reportedly quite common throughout its range in Colorado, Kansas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas in the early twentieth century (Bent 1932, pp. 280-281,283; Baker 1953, p. 8; Bailey and Niedrach 1965, p. 51; Sands 1968, p. 454; Fleharty 1995, pp. 38-44; Robb and Schroeder 2005, p. 13). Litton (1978, p. 1) suggested that as many as two million birds may have occurred in Texas alone prior to 1900. By the 1930s, the species had begun to disappear from areas where it had been considered abundant, and the decline was attributed to extensive cultivation, overgrazing by livestock, and drought (Bent 1932, p. 280). Populations were nearly extirpated from Colorado, Kansas, and New Mexico, and were markedly reduced in Oklahoma and Texas (Baker 1953, p. 8; Crawford 1980, p. 2).
Rangewide estimates of population size were almost nonexistent until the 1960s and likely corresponded with more frequent and consistent efforts by the States to monitor lesser prairie-chicken populations. Although lesser prairie-chicken populations can fluctuate considerably from year to year in response to variable weather and habitat conditions, generally the overall population size has continued to decline from the estimates of population size available in the early 1900s (Robb and Schroeder 2005, p. 13). By the mid-1960s, Johnsgard (1973, p. 281) estimated the total rangewide population to be between 36,000 and 43,000 individuals. In 1980, the estimated rangewide fall population size was thought to be between 44,400 and 52,900 birds (Crawford 1980, p. 3). Population size in the fall is likely to be larger than population estimates derived from spring counts due to recruitment that occurs following the nesting season. By 2003, the estimated total rangewide population was 32,000 birds, based on information provided by the Lesser Prairie-Chicken Working Group (Rich et al. 2004, unpaginated). Prior to the implementation of a rangewide survey effort in 2012, the best available population estimates indicate that the lesser prairie-chicken population likely would be approximately 45,000 birds or less (see Table 2). This estimate is a rough approximation of the maximum population size and should not be considered as the actual current population size. Although the estimate uses the most current information available, population estimates for some States have not been determined in several years and reported values may not represent actual population sizes. For example, the values reported for Colorado and Oklahoma were published in 2000 and recent estimates of total population size for these States have not been determined. The aerial surveys conducted in 2012, as explained below, provide the best estimate of current population size.
Table 2--Recent Population Estimates Prior to 2012 by State
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Recent population
State estimates prior to
2012
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Colorado...........................................
